Accessing Resources via Hierarchical Exploration of Topic Areas

ETHICS OF VOTING

Archer, A., & Wilson, A. T. (2017). Against Vote Markets: A Reply to Freiman. Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy, 8(2), 1–6.
https://doi.org/10.26556/jesp.v8i2.161

Scarry, E., Sandel, M., Burkert, W., Hartman, G., Pinker, S., White, R., & Verba, S. (2000). The Tanner lectures on human values (G. Peterson, Ed.; Vol. 21). University of Utah Press.

1. FOLK VIEWS ⏵

1.1 On tactical voting

Berrod, N. (2019, May 23). Européennes: Les appels au «vote utile» peuvent-ils être efficaces? - Le Parisien. Le Parisien.
Http://www.leparisien.fr/elections/europeennes/europeennes-les-appels-au-vote-utile-peuvent-ils-etre-efficaces-23-05-2019-8078274.php

Campbell, A. (2019, December 3). Tactical voting – a template that could help Labour and Lib Dem voters unite in opposition to a big Johnson majority | Alastair Campbell.
https://alastaircampbell.org/2019/12/tactical-voting-a-template-that-could-help-labour-and-lib-dem-voters-unite-in-opposition-to-a-big-johnson-majority/

Casalicchio, E. (2019, November 14). The peaks and pitfalls of tactical voting. POLITICO.
https://www.politico.eu/article/peaks-pitfalls-of-tactical-voting/

Cox, S. (1987, May 2). Tactical Voting. Financial Times.

Fize, M. (2017, April 21). Le « vote utile » est une notion du vieux « logiciel » politique. La Croix.
https://www.la-croix.com/Debats/Forum-et-debats/Le-vote-utile-notion-vieux-logiciel-politique-2017-04-21-1200841249

González, V. R. (n.d.). Por qué lo llaman voto útil si puede perjudicarles. The Conversation.
Http://theconversation.com/por-que-lo-llaman-voto-util-si-puede-perjudicarles-116041

Halimi, S. (2017, April 1). Et cette fois encore, le piège du vote utile ? Le Monde Diplomatique.
https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2017/04/HALIMI/57398

Hencke, D. (1987, April 25). Kinnock scorns tactical voting as ‘fruit machine politics’. The Guardian, 1.

Hewson, D. (1983, June 7). Tactical dilemma faces the anti-Labour voter in a once rock-solid seat. The Times, 4.

Ibbetson, C. (n.d.). Who’s tactically voting, and why? | YouGov. YouGov UK.
https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2019/12/10/whos-tactically-voting-and-why

Jeffery, M. (2019, November 12). Can you actually trust tactical voting websites? Wired UK.
https://www.wired.co.uk/article/tactical-voting-general-election-2019

Look up the tactical vote in your constituency. (n.d.). Tactical Vote.
https://tactical.vote/

Looney, W. S., & Werner, P. (2020). A Defense of Spoiler Voting. Public Affairs Quarterly, 43(3), 205–228.
https://doi.org/10.2307/26929782

McGinley, S. (2019, November 12). What is tactical voting and why is it bad for democracy? Electoral Reform Society.
https://www.electoral-reform.org.uk/what-is-tactical-voting-and-why-is-it-bad-for-democracy/

McGinn, C. (1987, March 14). Tactical Voting. Financial Times.

Mitchell, C. (2019, December 7). Final tactical vote recommendations to stop a Boris Johnson majority. Best for Britain.
https://www.bestforbritain.org/final_general_election_tactical_voting_recommendations_from_best_for_britain

Owen, I. (1987, February 26). Baker warns on tactical voting risks. Financial Times, 8.

Parker, A. (2001, June 1). Kennedy gives tactical voting his blessing. Financial Times, 6.

Parker, G. (1995, September 20). Labour Anger as Field Urges Tactical Voting. Financial Times, 7.

Raphael, A. (1992, April 5). A strategic weapon: Never has so much depended on the few. The Observer, 17.

Rea, A. (2019, December 9). Could tactical voting actually alter the election result? New Statesman.
https://www.newstatesman.com/politics/election-2019/2019/12/could-tactical-voting-actually-alter-election-result

Shrimsley, R. (2001, June 28). Portillo campaigners deny tactical voting plan. Financial Times, 2.

Sky News (Director). (2019, November 1). Explained: What is tactical voting?
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=M0t-gh1wqW4

Snow, G. (2001, June 7). Voters will defy the system. Financial Times, 20.

Vote utile. (2017, May 1). Le Monde Diplomatique.
https://www.monde-diplomatique.fr/2017/05/A/57507

What is the secret behind tactical voting? (2019, November 13). BBC News.
https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-politics-50249649

Wintour, P. (2000, November 3). Downing Street backs call for anti-Tory tactical voting. The Guardian, 13.

Wolf-Mandroux, P. (2017, April 21). Le vote utile est-il vraiment… utile ? La Croix.
https://www.la-croix.com/France/Politique/Le-vote-utile-vraiment-utile-2017-04-21-1200841288

Yates, I. (1974, August 25). Enter the tactical voter. The Observer, 9.

Your guide to tactical voting in the UK election. (2019, November 29). Financial Times.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4Gzw_naodl0

1.2 On voting dilemmas

A voter’s dilemma. (1910, January 18). The Times, 12.

A voting dilemma for Oct. 6 election. (2011, September 24). Kingston Whig Standard.
https://www.newspapers.com/browse/canada/ontario/kingston/the-kingston-whig-standard_27064/2011/09/24/

Allen, D., Brennan, J., Bouie, J., Smarsh, S., & Taylor, A. (2020, November). What’s in a Vote? Electoral politics in an ailing democracy [Harper’s Magazine].
https://harpers.org/archive/2020/11/whats-in-a-vote-electoral-politics-in-an-ailing-democracy/

Blackburn, R. (1980, November 10). Dilemma of a passive Labour supporter. The Guardian.

Butt, R. (1990, May 3). Thatcher’s choice. The Times.

Curtis, C. (2019, December 23). In their own words: Why voters abandoned Labour | YouGov.
https://yougov.co.uk/topics/politics/articles-reports/2019/12/23/their-own-words-why-voters-abandoned-labour

Floating voters’ dilemma. (1974, February 25). The Guardian, 7.

Hewson, D. (1983, June 7). Tactical dilemma faces the anti-Labour voter in a once rock-solid seat. The Times, 4.

Hullot-Guiot, K., & Coquaz, V. (2017, April). «Je vais voter parce qu’il le faut, j’espère que ce couillon de Macron s’en souviendra». Libération.Fr.
https://www.liberation.fr/apps/2017/04/temoignages-macron/

Julian Critchley. (1999, June 8). Voters’ dilemmas in Euro elections. The Times, 21.

Kaletsky, A. (2005, May 5). How a bit of lateral thinking solved my voting dilemma. The Times, 21.

Kristy, S. (2001, May 19). SNP plays down voting dilemma. The Guardian, 8.

Pratt, B. (1970, June 15). Voters’ dilemma in a Liberal marginal. The Guardian, 5.

Rae, I. (2006, June 29). Voters’ dilemma. The Times, 23.

Schwarz, W. (1981, April 11). Voters face bewildering choices. The Guardian, 7.

Soullier, L., Moniez, L., Jérôme, B., Legendre, N., de Montvalon, J.-B., Rof, G., Zappi, S., & Tenoux, J.-P. (2017, January 30). Témoignages d’électeurs: « La gauche, c’est un peu spécial cette année ». Le Monde.
https://www.lemonde.fr/primaire-de-la-gauche/article/2017/01/30/la-gauche-c-est-un-peu-special-cette-annee_5071342_5008374.html

Watts, P. (2005, January 24). A voter’s dilemma. The Times, 18.

2. INDIVIDUAL VOTER CHOICE ⏵

2.1 Why vote? ⏵

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Goldman, Alvin. (1999). Why Citizens should Vote: A Causal Responsibility Approach. Social Philosophy and Policy, 16(2), 201–217.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265052500002442

Maskivker, J. (2018). Being a Good Samaritan Requires You to Vote. Political Studies, 66(2), 409–424.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321717723513

Riker, W. H. (1961). Voting and the Summation of Preferences: An interpretive Bibliographical Review of Selected Developments During the Last Decade. American Political Science Review, 55(4), 900–911.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055400126085

2.1.1 A moral duty to vote ⏵

Blais, A., & Galais, C. (2016). Measuring the civic duty to vote: A proposal. Electoral Studies, 41, 60–69.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.003

Feitosa, F., & Galais, C. (2020). How Stable is the Sense of Civic Duty to Vote? A Panel Study on the Individual-Level Stability of the Attitude. 32(2), 344–353.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edz029

Freiman, C. (2020). Why It’s Ok to Ignore Politics. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003039655

Galais, C., & Blais, A. (2016). Do people feel more of a duty to vote in some elections? West European Politics, 39(4), 755–777.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01402382.2015.1104994

Goodman, N. (2018). The conditional duty to vote in elections. Electoral Studies, 53, 39–47.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2017.10.003

Jones, W. M. (1954). In Defence of Apathy: Some Doubts on the Duty to Vote. Political Studies, 2(1), 25–37.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1954.tb01011.x

Mayo, H. B. (1959). A note on the alleged duty to vote. The Journal of Politics, 21(2), 319–323.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2127168

2.1.1.1 Defences

Goldman, A. I. (1999). Why Citizens Should Vote: A Causal Responsibility Approach*. Social Philosophy and Policy, 16(2), 201–217.
https://doi.org10.1017/S0265052500002442

Maring, L. (2016). Debate: Why Does the Excellent Citizen Vote? Journal of Political Philosophy, 24(2), 245–257.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12081

Maskivker, J. (2016). An Epistemic Justification for the Obligation to Vote. Critical Review, 28(2), 224–247.
https://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2016.1191183

Maskivker, J. (2018). Being a Good Samaritan Requires You to Vote. Political Studies, 66(2), 409–424.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321717723513

Maskivker, J. (2019). The duty to vote. Oxford University Press.

2.1.1.2 Objections

Brennan, J. (2009). Polluting The Polls: When Citizens Should Not Vote. Australasian Journal of Philosophy, 87(4), 535–549.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00048400802587309

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Lomasky, L. E., & Brennan, G. (2000). Is there a Duty to Vote? Social Philosophy and Policy, 17(1), 62–86.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0265052500002533

Saunders, B. (2016). A Defence of the Right Not to Vote. In E. Crookston, D. Killoren, & J. Trerise (Eds.), Ethics in Politics: The Rights and Obligations of Individual Political Agents (pp. 254–268). Routledge.

Saunders, B. (2019). Against Detaching the Duty to Vote. The Journal of Politics, 82(2), 753–756.
https://doi.org/10.1086/706596

Sheehy, P. (2002). A Duty Not to Vote. Ratio, 15(1), 46–57.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9329.00175

2.1.2 Is voting rational? ⏵

Abrams, S., Iversen, T., & Soskice, D. (2011). Informal Social Networks and Rational Voting. British Journal of Political Science, 229–257.

Barnett, Z. (2020). Why You Should Vote to Change the Outcome. Philosophy and Public Affairs, 48(4), 422–446.
https://doi.org/10.1111/papa.12177

Bendor, J., Diermeier, D., & Ting, M. (2003). A Behavioral Model of Turnout. American Political Science Review, 97(2), 261–280.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055403000662

Edlin, A., Gelman, A., & Kaplan, N. (2007). Voting as a Rational Choice: Why and How People Vote To Improve the Well-Being of Others. Rationality and Society, 19(3), 293–314.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1043463107077384

Geys, B. (2006). ‘Rational’ Theories of Voter Turnout: A Review. Political Studies Review, 4(1), 16–35.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1478-9299.2006.00034.x

2.1.2.1 Defences ⏵

Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1827369

Ridge, M. (2021). Voting for Less than the Best*. Journal of Political Philosophy, 29(3), 404–426.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12244

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1968). A Theory of the Calculus of Voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25–42.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1973). An Introduction to Positive Political Theory (Vol. 387). Prentice-Hall.

Vergara, C. (2020). Populism as Plebeian Politics: Inequality, Domination, and Popular Empowerment. Journal of Political Philosophy, 28(2), 222–246.
https://doi.org/jttps://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12203

2.1.2.1.1.1 Expressive account

Brennan, G., & Lomasky, L. (1993). Democracy and Decision: The Pure Theory of Electoral Preference. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173544

Galais, C., & Blais, A. (2016). Beyond rationalization: Voting out of duty or expressing duty after voting? International Political Science Review, 37(2), 213–229.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512114550372

2.1.2.1.1.2 Instrumental account ⏵

2.1.2.1.1.2.1 Contributory view

Goldman, A. I. (1999). Why Citizens Should Vote: A Causal Responsibility Approach*. Social Philosophy and Policy, 16(2), 201–217.
https://doi.org10.1017/S0265052500002442

Mackie, G. (2015). Why It’s Rational to Vote. In C. López-Guerra & J. Maskivker (Eds.), Rationality, Democracy, and Justice: The Legacy of Jon Elster (pp. 21–49). Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107588165.005

Tuck, R. (2008). Free Riding. Harvard University Press.

2.1.2.1.1.2.2 Mandate view

Guerrero, A. A. (2010). The Paradox of Voting and the Ethics of Political Representation. Philosophy & Public Affairs, 38(3), 272–306.

2.1.2.1.1.2.3 Collective benefit view

Parfit, D. (1986). Reasons and Persons. Oxford University Press.

2.1.2.1.1.3 Low-cost argument

Niemi, R. G. (1976). Costs of voting and nonvoting. Public Choice, 27(1), 115–119.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01718955

Olson, M. (1971). The Logic of Collective Action. Harvard University Press.

2.1.2.1.1.4 Relative rather than absolute perspective

Barzel, Y., & Silberberg, E. (1973). Is the act of voting rational? Public Choice, 16(1), 51–58.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01718806

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1968). A Theory of the Calculus of Voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25–42.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324

Settle, R. F., & Abrams, B. A. (1976). The determinants of voter participation: A more general model. Public Choice, 27(1), 81–89.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01718949

Silberman, J., & Durden, G. (1975). The rational behavior theory of voter participation. Public Choice, 23(1), 101–108.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01718096

2.1.2.1.1.5 Duty view

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1968). A Theory of the Calculus of Voting. American Political Science Review, 62(1), 25–42.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1953324

Riker, W. H., & Ordeshook, P. C. (1973). An Introduction to Positive Political Theory (Vol. 387). Prentice-Hall.

2.1.2.2 Objections

Blais, A. (2000). To vote or not to vote? The merits and limits of rational choice theory. University of Pittsburgh Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5hjrrf

Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1827369

Fiorina, M. P. (1990). Information and rationality in elections. In J. Ferejohn & J. Kuklinski (Eds.), Information and Democratic Processes (pp. 329–342). University of Illinois Press.

Green, D., & Shapiro, I. (1994). Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science. Yale University Press.

2.1.3 On voter turnout ⏵

Bernhagen, P., & Marsh, M. (2006, April 13). Turnout matters: Sometimes. ECPR Joint Sessions, Uppsala.

Birch, S. (2010). Perceptions of electoral fairness and voter turnout. Comparative Political Studies, 43(12), 1601–1622.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414010374021

Birch, S. (2018). Democratic Norms, Empirical Realities and Approaches to Improving Voter Turnout. Res Publica, 24(1), 9–30.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9380-3

Bruter, M. (2019). Electoral ergonomics: Three empirical examples of the interface between electoral psychology and design. Societies, 9(4), 82.
https://doi.org/10.3390/soc9040082

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2016). Through the Polling Booth Curtain: A Visual Experiment on Citizens’ Behaviour Inside the Polling Booth. In Voting Experiments (pp. 323–333). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-40573-5_17

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2017). Understanding the emotional act of voting. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(1), 1–3.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0024

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2020). Inside the mind of a voter: A new approach to electoral psychology. Princeton University Press.

Bryan, C. J., Walton, G. M., Rogers, T., & Dweck, C. S. (2011). Motivating voter turnout by invoking the self. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 108(31), 12653–12656.
https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1103343108

Burden, B. C. (2000). Voter turnout and the national election studies. Political Analysis, 389–398.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029823

Carreras, M., & İrepoğlu, Y. (2013). Trust in elections, vote buying, and turnout in Latin America. Electoral Studies, 32(4), 609–619.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2013.07.012

CORDIS - European Commission. (2016). INMIVO (Inside the mind of a voter—Memory, Identity, and Electoral Psychology).
https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/241187/reporting

Dahlgaard, J. O., Bhatti, Y., Hansen, J. H., & Hansen, K. M. (2021). Living Together, Voting Together: Voters Moving in Together Before an Election Have Higher Turnout. British Journal of Political Science.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123420000691

Dhillon, A., & Peralta, S. (2002). Economic Theories of Voter Turnout. The Economic Journal, 112(480), F332–F352.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1468-0297.00049

Ezrow, L., & Xezonakis, G. (2016). Satisfaction with democracy and voter turnout: A temporal perspective. Party Politics, 22(1), 3–14.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068814549335

Fornos, C. A., Power, T. J., & Garand, J. C. (2004). Explaining Voter Turnout in Latin America, 1980 to 2000. Comparative Political Studies, 37(8), 909–940.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414004267981

Foster, J., & Taylor, D. (2019). Voter turnout decline in New Zealand: A critical review of the literature and suggestions for future research. New Zealand Sociology, 34, 1–26.

Fowler, J. H., & Dawes, C. T. (2008). Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout. The Journal of Politics, 70(3), 579–594.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608080638

Gallego, A. (2010). Understanding unequal turnout: Education and voting in comparative perspective. Electoral Studies, 29(2), 239–248.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2009.11.002

Gentzkow, M. (2006). Television and Voter Turnout. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 121(3), 931–972.
https://doi.org/10.1162/qjec.121.3.931

Gerber, A. S., Green, D. P., & Larimer, C. W. (2008). Social Pressure and Voter Turnout: Evidence from a Large-Scale Field Experiment. American Political Science Review, 33–48.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S000305540808009X

Germann, M., & Serdült, U. (2017). Internet voting and turnout: Evidence from Switzerland. Electoral Studies, 47, 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2017.03.001

Geys, B. (2006). Explaining voter turnout: A review of aggregate-level research. Electoral Studies, 25(4), 637–663.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2005.09.002

Gidengil, E., Lahtinen, H., Wass, H., & Erola, J. (2020). From Generation to Generation: The Role of Grandparents in the Intergenerational Transmission of (Non-) Voting. Political Research Quarterly, 74(4), 1137–1151.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912920971715

Green, D. P., & Gerber, A. S. (2023). Get out the vote: How to increase voter turnout. Rowman & Littlefield.

Harrison, S. (2020). Democratic Frustration: Concept, Dimensions and Behavioural Consequences. Societies, 10(1), 19.
https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10010019

Highton, B. (1997). Easy registration and voter turnout. The Journal of Politics, 59(2), 565–575.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381600053585

Highton, B., & Wolfinger, R. E. (2001). The First Seven Years of the Political Life Cycle. American Journal of Political Science, 45(1), 202–209.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2669367

Hill, L. (2016). Voting turnout, equality, liberty and representation: Epistemic versus procedural democracy. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 19(3), 283–300.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2016.1144855

Hill, L., & Louth, J. (2006, September 25). Mobilising the Youth Vote: The Future of British Democracy. Australasian Political Studies Association Conference.

Hooghe, M., Marien, S., & Pauwels, T. (2011). Where Do Distrusting Voters Turn if There is No Viable Exit or Voice Option? The Impact of Political Trust on Electoral Behaviour in the Belgian Regional Elections of June 2009 1. Government and Opposition, 46(2), 245–273.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-7053.2010.01338.x

Jackman, R. W., & Miller, R. A. (1995). Voter turnout in the industrial democracies during the 1980s. Comparative Political Studies, 27(4), 467–492.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414095027004001

Jacob, D. (2015). Every Vote Counts: Equality, Autonomy, and the Moral Value of Democratic Decision-Making. Res Publica, 21(1), 61–75.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-014-9262-x

Kurella, A.-S., & Rosset, J. (2018). The Rise of Cultural Issues as an Opportunity for the Right? Insights from the 2015 Swiss Election. Swiss Political Science Review, 24(4), 381–399.
https://doi.org/10.1111/spsr.12327

Landwehr, C., & Ojeda, C. (2021). Democracy and Depression: A Cross-National Study of Depressive Symptoms and Nonparticipation. American Political Science Review, 115(1), 323–330.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055420000830

Lodge, M., & Taber, C. S. (2013). The rationalizing voter. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139032490

Lutz, G., & Marsh, M. (n.d.). Introduction: Consequences of low turnout. Electoral Studies, 26(3), 539–547.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2006.10.001

Matsusaka, J. G. (1995). Explaining voter turnout patterns: An information theory. Public Choice, 84(1–2), 91–117.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01047803

Miles, M. R. (2015). Turnout as Consent: How Fair Governance Encourages Voter Participation. Political Research Quarterly, 68(2), 363–376.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912915573282

Mueller, D. C. (2003). Public Choice III. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813771

Nadeau, R., Lewis-Beck, M. S., & Foucault, M. (2019). Wealth and Voter Turnout: Investigating Twenty-Eight Democracies. Polity, 51(2), 261–287.
https://doi.org/10.1086/701961

Ojeda, C. (2015). Depression and Political Participation. Social Science Quarterly, 96(5), 1226–1243.
Http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/ssqu.12173

Powell Jr, G. B. (1986). American voter turnout in comparative perspective. American Political Science Review, 17–43.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1957082

Rosenstone, S. J. (1982). Economic adversity and voter turnout. American Journal of Political Science, 26(1), 25–46.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2110837

Rosenstone, S. J., & Wolfinger, R. E. (1978). The Effect of Registration Laws on Voter Turnout. American Political Science Review, 72(1), 22–45.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1953597

Saunders, B. (2012). The Democratic Turnout ‘Problem’. Political Studies, 60(2), 306–320.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2011.00914.x

Stockemer, D. (2017). What Affects Voter Turnout? A Review Article/Meta-Analysis of Aggregate Research. Government and Opposition, 52(4), 698–722.
https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2016.30

2.1.3.1 Explaining turnout ⏵

Baek, M. (2009). A Comparative Analysis of Political Communication Systems and Voter Turnout. American Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 376–393.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00376.x

Bernhagen, P., & Marsh, M. (2006, April 13). Turnout matters: Sometimes. ECPR Joint Sessions, Uppsala.

Blais, A. (2006). What affects voter turnout? Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 111–125.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.070204.105121

Burden, B. C. (2009). The dynamic effects of education on voter turnout. Electoral Studies, 28(4), 540–549.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2009.05.027

Cancela, J., & Geys, B. (2016). Explaining voter turnout: A meta-analysis of national and subnational elections. Electoral Studies, 42, 264–275.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.03.005

Cassel, C. A., & Luskin, R. C. (1988). American Political Science Review Article contents Abstract References Simple Explanations of Turnout Decline. American Political Science Review, 82(4), 1321–1330.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1961763

Flickinger, R. S., & Studlar, D. T. (1992). The disappearing voters? Exploring declining turnout in Western European elections. West European Politics, 15(2), 1–16.
https://doi.org/ttps://doi.org/10.1080/01402389208424903

Flickinger, R. S., & Studlar, D. T. (2007). One Europe, Many Electorates?: Models of Turnout in European Parliament Elections After 2004. Comparative Political Studies, 40(4), 383–404.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414006288970

Foster, J., & Taylor, D. (2019). Voter turnout decline in New Zealand: A critical review of the literature and suggestions for future research. New Zealand Sociology, 34, 1–26.

Fowler, J. H. (2006). Altruism and Turnout. The Journal of Politics, 68(3), 674–683.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2006.00453.x

Fowler, J. H., & Dawes, C. T. (2008). Two Genes Predict Voter Turnout. The Journal of Politics, 70(3), 579–594.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0022381608080638

Franklin, M. N. (2002). The dynamics of electoral participation. In L. LeDuc, R. Niemi, & P. Norris (Eds.), Comparing Democracies 2: Elections and Voting in Global Perspective (Vol. 2, pp. 148–168). Sage.

Franklin, M. N. (2004). Voter turnout and the dynamics of electoral competition in established democracies since 1945. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511616884

Geys, B. (2006). Explaining voter turnout: A review of aggregate-level research. Electoral Studies, 25(4), 637–663.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2005.09.002

Gray, M., & Caul, M. (2000). Declining voter turnout in advanced industrial democracies, 1950 to 1997: The effects of declining group mobilization. Comparative Political Studies, 33(9), 1091–1122.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414000033009001

Green, D. P., & Shachar, R. (2000). Habit formation and political behaviour: Evidence of consuetude in voter turnout. British Journal of Political Science, 30(4), 561–573.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400000247

Grönlund, K., & Setälä, M. (2007). Political Trust, Satisfaction and Voter Turnout. Comparative European Politics, 5(4), 400–422.
https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.cep.6110113

Heath, O. (2007). Explaining Turnout Decline in Britain, 1964–2005: Party Identification and the Political Context. Political Behavior, 29(4), 493–516.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-007-9039-4

Hill, L., & Louth, J. (2006, September 25). Mobilising the Youth Vote: The Future of British Democracy. Australasian Political Studies Association Conference.

Jackson, R. A. (1996). A Reassessment of Voter Mobilization. Political Research Quarterly, 49(2), 331–349.
https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299604900205

Kasara, K., & Suryanarayan, P. (2015). When Do the Rich Vote Less Than the Poor and Why? Explaining Turnout Inequality across the World. American Journal of Political Science, 59(3), 613–627.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12134

Kostadinova, T. (2003). Voter turnout dynamics in post‐Communist Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 42(6), 741–759.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00102

Lutz, G., & Marsh, M. (n.d.). Introduction: Consequences of low turnout. Electoral Studies, 26(3), 539–547.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2006.10.001

Matsusaka, J. G. (1995). Explaining voter turnout patterns: An information theory. Public Choice, 84(1–2), 91–117.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01047803

Miles, M. R. (2015). Turnout as Consent: How Fair Governance Encourages Voter Participation. Political Research Quarterly, 68(2), 363–376.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912915573282

Miller, W. E. (1992). The puzzle transformed: Explaining declining turnout. Political Behavior, 14(1), 1–43.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00993507

Mueller, D. C. (2003). Public Choice III. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813771

Nadeau, R., Lewis-Beck, M. S., & Foucault, M. (2019). Wealth and Voter Turnout: Investigating Twenty-Eight Democracies. Polity, 51(2), 261–287.
https://doi.org/10.1086/701961

Norris, P. (2002). Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511610073

Ojeda, C. (2015). Depression and Political Participation. Social Science Quarterly, 96(5), 1226–1243.
Http://doi.wiley.com/10.1111/ssqu.12173

Perea, E. A. (2002). Individual characteristics, institutional incentives and electoral abstention in Western Europe. European Journal of Political Research, 41(5), 643–673.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00025

Rosenstone, S. J. (1982). Economic adversity and voter turnout. American Journal of Political Science, 26(1), 25–46.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2110837

Shaffer, S. D. (1981). A Multivariate Explanation of Decreasing Turnout in Presidential Elections, 1960-1976. American Journal of Political Science, 25(1), 68–95.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2110913

Squire, P., Wolfinger, R. E., & Glass, D. P. (1987). Residential Mobility and Voter Turnout. American Political Science Review, 81(1), 45–65.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1960778

Stockemer, D. (2017). What Affects Voter Turnout? A Review Article/Meta-Analysis of Aggregate Research. Government and Opposition, 52(4), 698–722.
https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2016.30

Teixeira, R. A. (1987). Why Americans don’t vote: Turnout decline in the United States, 1960-1984. Greenwood Publishing Group.

Teixeira, R. A. (2011). The disappearing American voter. Brookings Institution Press.

Tenn, S. (2005). An Alternative Measure of Relative Education to Explain Voter Turnout. The Journal of Politics, 67(1), 271–282.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2005.00317.x

2.1.3.1.1 Reviews

Blais, A. (2006). What affects voter turnout? Annual Review of Political Science, 9, 111–125.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.polisci.9.070204.105121

Cancela, J., & Geys, B. (2016). Explaining voter turnout: A meta-analysis of national and subnational elections. Electoral Studies, 42, 264–275.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.03.005

Geys, B. (2006). Explaining voter turnout: A review of aggregate-level research. Electoral Studies, 25(4), 637–663.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2005.09.002

Stockemer, D. (2017). What Affects Voter Turnout? A Review Article/Meta-Analysis of Aggregate Research. Government and Opposition, 52(4), 698–722.
https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2016.30

2.1.3.1.2 Election-specific circumstances

2.1.3.1.3 Institutional aspects ⏵

Blais, A., & Dobrzynska, A. (1998). Turnout in Electoral Democracies. European Journal of Political Research, 33(2), 239–261.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00382

Franklin, M. N. (1999). Electoral Engineering and Cross-National Turnout Differences: What Role for Compulsory Voting? British Journal of Political Science, 29(1), 205–216.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123499210095

Franklin, M. N. (2004). Voter turnout and the dynamics of electoral competition in established democracies since 1945. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511616884

Jackman, R. W. (1987). Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies. The American Political Science Review, 405–423.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1961959

Jackman, R. W., & Miller, R. A. (1995). Voter turnout in the industrial democracies during the 1980s. Comparative Political Studies, 27(4), 467–492.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414095027004001

2.1.3.1.3.1 Compulsory voting

Franklin, M. N., & Hobolt, S. B. (2011). The legacy of lethargy: How elections to the European Parliament depress turnout. Electoral Studies, 30(1), 67–76.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.09.019

Henderson, A., & McEwen, N. (2010). A comparative analysis of voter turnout in regional elections. Electoral Studies, 29(3), 405–416.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.03.012

Power, T. J. (2009). Compulsory for Whom? Mandatory Voting and Electoral Participation in Brazil, 1986-2006. Journal of Politics in Latin America, 1(1), 97–122.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1866802X0900100105

Quintelier, E., Hooghe, M., & Marien, S. (2011). The Effect of Compulsory Voting on Turnout Stratification Patterns: A Cross-national Analysis. International Political Science Review, 32(4), 396–416.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512110382016

Rose, R., & Borz, G. (2013). Institutional Stimuli and Individual Response as Explanations of Turnout: The 2009 EP Election. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 23(4), 405–422.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2013.794804

Singh, S. P. (2015). Compulsory Voting and the Turnout Decision Calculus. Political Studies, 63(3), 548–568.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.12117

Stockemer, D., & Scruggs, L. (2012). Income inequality, development and electoral turnout–New evidence on a burgeoning debate. Electoral Studies, 31(4), 764–773.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.06.006

2.1.3.1.3.2 Importance of election

Blais, A., & Dobrzynska, A. (1998). Turnout in Electoral Democracies. European Journal of Political Research, 33(2), 239–261.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00382

Johnston, R., Matthews, J. S., & Bittner, A. (2007). Turnout and the party system in Canada, 1988–2004. Electoral Studies, 26(4), 735–745.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2007.08.002

Matsubayashi, T., & Wu, J.-D. (2012). Distributive Politics and Voter Turnout. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 22(2), 167–185.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2012.666555

Reif, K., & Schmitt, H. (1980). Nine second‐order national elections–a conceptual framework for the analysis of European Election results. European Journal of Political Research, 8(1), 3–44.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.1980.tb00737.x

2.1.3.1.3.3 Number of parties

Grofman, B., & Selb, P. (2011). Turnout and the (effective) number of parties at the national and district levels: A puzzle-solving approach. Party Politics, 17(1), 93–117.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068810365506

Gunther, R. (2005). Parties and electoral behavior in Southern Europe. Comparative Politics, 37(3), 253–275.
https://doi.org/10.2307/20072889

2.1.3.1.3.4 Proportional representation

Blais, A., & Dobrzynska, A. (1998). Turnout in Electoral Democracies. European Journal of Political Research, 33(2), 239–261.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00382

Brockington, D. (2004). The Paradox of Proportional Representation: The Effect of Party Systems and Coalitions on Individuals’ Electoral Participation. Political Studies, 52(3), 469–490.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2004.00491.x

Franklin, M. N. (2004). Voter turnout and the dynamics of electoral competition in established democracies since 1945. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511616884

Jackman, R. W. (1987). Political Institutions and Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies. The American Political Science Review, 405–423.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1961959

Jackman, R. W., & Miller, R. A. (1995). Voter turnout in the industrial democracies during the 1980s. Comparative Political Studies, 27(4), 467–492.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414095027004001

Lehoucq, F., & Wall, D. L. (2004). Explaining voter turnout rates in new democracies: Guatemala. Electoral Studies, 23(3), 485–500.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(03)00055-6

Milner, H., & Ladner, A. (2006). Can PR Voting Serve as a Shelter Against Declining Turnout? Evidence from Swiss Municipal Elections. International Political Science Review, 27(1), 29–45.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0192512106058633

Selb, P. (2009). A deeper look at the proportionality—Turnout nexus. Comparative Political Studies, 42(4), 527–548.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414008327427

2.1.3.1.3.5 Other

Brown, R. D., & Wedeking, J. (2006). People Who Have Their Tickets But Do Not Use Them: “Motor Voter,” Registration, and Turnout Revisited. American Politics Research, 34(4), 479–504.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X05281122

Wagner, M., Johann, D., & Kritzinger, S. (2012). Voting at 16: Turnout and the quality of vote choice. Electoral Studies, 31(2), 372–383.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.01.007

2.1.3.1.4 Socio-economic aspects

Blais, A., & Dobrzynska, A. (1998). Turnout in Electoral Democracies. European Journal of Political Research, 33(2), 239–261.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00382

Norris, P. (2002). Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511610073

2.1.4 Valid/invalid voting

Cohen, M. J. (2018a). A dynamic model of the invalid vote: How a changing candidate menu shapes null voting behavior. Electoral Studies, 53, 111–121.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2018.04.015

Cohen, M. J. (2018b). Protesting via the null ballot: An assessment of the decision to cast an invalid vote in Latin America. Political Behavior, 40(2), 395–414.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-017-9405-9

Kouba, K., & Lysek, J. (2016). Institutional determinants of invalid voting in post-communist Europe and Latin America. Electoral Studies, 41, 92–104.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.11.021

Kouba, K., & Lysek, J. (2019). What Affects Invalid Voting? A Review and Meta-Analysis. Government and Opposition, 54(4), 745–775.
https://doi.org/10.1017/gov.2018.33

Power, T. J., & Garand, J. C. (2007). Determinants of invalid voting in Latin America. Electoral Studies, 26(2), 432–444.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2006.11.001

Power, T. J., & Roberts, J. T. (1995). Compulsory Voting, Invalid Ballots, and Abstention in Brazil. Political Research Quarterly, 48(4), 795–826.
https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299504800407

Singh, S. P. (2019). Politically unengaged, distrusting, and disaffected individuals drive the link between compulsory voting and invalid balloting. Political Science Research and Methods, 7(1), 107–123.
https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2017.11

Uggla, F. (2008). Incompetence, Alienation, or Calculation?: Explaining Levels of Invalid Ballots and Extra-Parliamentary Votes. Comparative Political Studies, 41(8), 1141–1164.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414007301702

2.2 How to vote? / How do people vote? ⏵

2.2.1 Voting for the common good? ⏵

Brennan, G., & Pettit, P. (1990). Unveiling the Vote. British Journal of Political Science, 20(3), 311–333.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712340000586X

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Holcombe, R. G. (2013). Do Voters Have a Duty to Promote the Common Good? A Comment on Brennan’s The Ethics of Voting. Reason Papers, 35(1), 17–25.

Lever, A. (2017). Must We Vote for the Common Good? In E. Crookston, D. Killoren, & J. Trerise (Eds.), Ethics in Politics: The Rights and Obligations of Individual Political Agents (pp. 145–156). Routledge.

Wolff, J. (1994). Democratic Voting and the Mixed-Motivation Problem. Analysis, 54(4), 193–196.
https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/54.4.193

2.2.1.1 Defences

Brennan, G., & Pettit, P. (1990). Unveiling the Vote. British Journal of Political Science, 20(3), 311–333.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712340000586X

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

2.2.1.2 Objections

Wolff, J. (1994). Democratic Voting and the Mixed-Motivation Problem. Analysis, 54(4), 193–196.
https://doi.org/10.1093/analys/54.4.193

2.2.2 Voting sincerely/strategically ⏵

A virtue unable to speak its name. (1996, September 24). The Guardian, 14.

Allen, N., & Bartle, J. (2018). None past the post: Britain at the polls, 2017 (021286188). Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526133281.001.0001

Alvarez, M. R., Roderick Kiewiet, D., & Núñez, L. (2018). Preferences, Constraints, and Choices. Tactical Voting in Mass Elections. In J. Fisher, E. Fieldhouse, M. N. Franklin, R. Gibson, M. Cantijoch, & C. Wlezien (Eds.), The Routledge Handbook of Elections, Voting Behavior and Public Opinion (021103976; pp. 181–191). Routledge.

Beerbohm, E. A. (2012). In Our Name: The Ethics of Democracy. Princeton University Press.

Black, D. (1958). The theory of committees and elections. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4225-7

Bol, D., & Verthé, T. (2019). Strategic Voting Versus Sincere Voting. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.013.932

Bragg, B. (2004, February 23). A Chance to Hang up the Tactical Voting Boots. Financial Times, 19.

Cox, S. (1987, May 2). Tactical Voting. Financial Times.

Dummett, M. (1984). Voting procedures. Oxford University Press.

Dummett, M. (1997). Principles of electoral reform. Oxford University Press.

Evans, G., Curtice, J., & Norris, P. (1998). New labour, new tactical voting? The causes and consequences of tactical voting in the 1997 general election. British Elections & Parties Review, 8(1), 65–79.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13689889808413005

Galbraith, J. W., & Rae, N. C. (1989). A Test of the Importance of Tactical Voting: Great Britain, 1987. British Journal of Political Science, 19(1), 126–136.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400005366

Geisz, S. (2006). An Indirect Argument for Strategic Voting. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 23(4), 433–444.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5930.2006.00343.x

Heath, A., & Evans, G. (1994). Tactical Voting: Concepts, Measurement and Findings. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 557–561.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007018

Hencke, D. (1987, April 25). Kinnock scorns tactical voting as ‘fruit machine politics’. The Guardian, 1.

Hewson, D. (1983, June 7). Tactical dilemma faces the anti-Labour voter in a once rock-solid seat. The Times, 4.

Johnston, R. J., & Pattie, C. J. (1991). Tactical Voting in Great Britain in 1983 and 1987: An Alternative Approach. British Journal of Political Science, 21, 95–128.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400006049

Mark, F., Niemi, R., & Whitten, G. (1994). The Two Faces of Tactical Voting. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 549–557.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007006

Mason, R. (2019, May 28). Labour expels Alastair Campbell from party. The Guardian.
https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/may/28/labour-expels-alastair-campbell-from-party

McGinn, C. (1987, March 14). Tactical Voting. Financial Times.

Niemi, R. G., Whitten, G., & Franklin, M. N. (1992). Constituency Characteristics, Individual Characteristics, and Tactical Voting in the 1987 British General Election. British Journal of Political Science, 22(2), 229–240.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400006347

Owen, I. (1987, February 26). Baker warns on tactical voting risks. Financial Times, 8.

Parker, A. (2001, June 1). Kennedy gives tactical voting his blessing. Financial Times, 6.

Parker, G. (1995, September 20). Labour Anger as Field Urges Tactical Voting. Financial Times, 7.

Raphael, A. (1992, April 5). A strategic weapon: Never has so much depended on the few. The Observer, 17.

Riera, P. (2016). Tactical Voting. In Oxford Handbook Topics in Politics. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935307.013.55

Riker, W. H. (1982). Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. W.H. Freeman.

Shrimsley, R. (2001, June 28). Portillo campaigners deny tactical voting plan. Financial Times, 2.

Snow, G. (2001, June 7). Voters will defy the system. Financial Times, 20.

Tactical Voting Scorned. (1987, February 26). The Guardian, 7.

Tyson, S. A. (2016). Information Acquisition, Strategic Voting, and Improving the Qualify of Democratic Choice. The Journal of Politics, 78(4), 1016–1031.
https://doi.org/10.1086/686027

Wintour, P. (2000, November 3). Downing Street backs call for anti-Tory tactical voting. The Guardian, 13.

Yates, I. (1974, August 25). Enter the tactical voter. The Observer, 9.

2.2.2.1 On sincere voting

Acharya, A., & Meirowitz, A. (2017). Sincere voting in large elections. Games and Economic Behavior, 101, 121–131. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2016.03.010

Austen-Smith, D. (1987). Sophisticated Sincerity: Voting Over Endogenous Agendas. The American Political Science Review, 81(4), 1323–1330. https://doi.org/https:/doi.org/10.2307/1962591

Austen-Smith, D., & Banks, J. S. (1996). Information Aggregation, Rationality, and the Condorcet Jury. The American Political Science Review; Washington, 90(1), 34. https://doi.org/10.2307/2082796

Ballester, M. Á., & Rey-Biel, P. (2009). Does uncertainty lead to sincerity? Simple and complex voting mechanisms. Social Choice and Welfare, 33(3), 477–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00355-009-0374-8

Blais, A., Laslier, J.-F., Poinas, F., & Van Der Straeten, K. (2015). Citizens’ preferences about voting rules: Self-interest, ideology, and sincerity. Public Choice, 164(3–4), 423–442. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-015-0287-2

Carey, B. (2018). Public Reason—Honesty, Not Sincerity. Journal of Political Philosophy, 26(1), 47–64. https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12119

Davidovitch, L., & Ben-Haim, Y. (2010). Robust satisficing voting: Why are uncertain voters biased towards sincerity? Public Choice, 145(1–2), 265–280. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-009-9565-1

Endriss, U. (2013). Sincerity and manipulation under approval voting. Theory and Decision, 74(3), 335–355. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11238-012-9301-z

Hampshire, S. (1971). Sincerity and Single-Mindedness. In Freedom of Mind and Other Essays (pp. 232–256). Princeton University Press. https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400869367-016

List, C., & Goodin, R. E. (2001). Epistemic Democracy: Generalizing the Condorcet Jury Theorem. Journal of Political Philosophy, 9(3), 277–306. https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9760.00128

Marchese, C., & Montefiori, M. (2011). Strategy versus sincerity in mean voting. Journal of Economic Psychology, 32(1), 93–102. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.joep.2010.12.003

Markovits, E. (2006). The Trouble with Being Earnest: Deliberative Democracy and the Sincerity Norm*. Journal of Political Philosophy, 14(3), 249–269. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2006.00240.x

McGregor, R. M. (2012). Voter sincerity and the time-of-voting-decision. Electoral Studies, 31(4), 715–725. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.07.002

Meehl, P. E. (1977). The Selfish Voter Paradox and the Thrown-Away Vote Argument. The American Political Science Review, 71(1), 11–30. https://doi.org/10.2307/1956951

Miller, N. R. (2010a). Agenda trees and sincere voting: A response to Schwartz. Public Choice, 145(1–2), 213–221. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-009-9562-4

Miller, N. R. (2010b). Agendas and sincerity: A second response to Schwartz. Public Choice, 145(3–4), 575–579. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9704-8

Núñez, M. (2014). The strategic sincerity of Approval voting. Economic Theory, 56(1), 157–189. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00199-013-0775-x

Schwartz, T. (2010). Reply to Miller on agendas and sincerity. Public Choice, 145(3–4), 571–573. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9703-9

Schwartzman, M. (2011). The Sincerity of Public Reason. Journal of Political Philosophy, 19(4), 375–398. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2010.00363.x

2.2.2.2 Defences of tactical voting

Gaus, G. F. (2009). The place of religious belief in public reason liberalism. In M. Dimova-Cookson & P. Stirk (Eds.), Multiculturalism and Moral Conflict (pp. 19–37).

Geisz, S. (2006). An Indirect Argument for Strategic Voting. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 23(4), 433–444.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-5930.2006.00343.x

Lukács, G. (1972). Tactics and Ethics. In R. Livingstone (Ed.), & M. McColgan (Trans.), Tactics and Ethics: Political Writings, 1919-1929 (pp. 3–10). NLB.

Wilson, J. L. (2019). Democratic Equality. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctvdf0kn3

2.2.2.3 Objections against tactical voting ⏵

Behn, R. D., & Vaupel, J. W. (1984). The wasted vote fallacy. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 3(4), 607–612.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.4050030411

Black, D. (1958). The theory of committees and elections. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4225-7

Dummett, M. (1997). Principles of electoral reform. Oxford University Press.

Miller, D. (1992). Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice. Political Studies, 40(s1), 54–67.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1992.tb01812.x

Poama, A. (2021). Social Injustice, Disadvantaged Offenders, and the State’s Authority to Punish*. Journal of Political Philosophy, 29(1), 73–93.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12218

Riker, W. H. (1982). Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. W.H. Freeman.

2.2.2.3.1 Tactical voting distorts the electoral outcome

Black, D. (1958). The theory of committees and elections. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4225-7

Cohen, J. (1986). An Epistemic Conception of Democracy. In Ethics (Vol. 97, Issue 1, pp. 26–38).
https://doi.org/10.1086/292815

Miller, D. (1992). Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice. Political Studies, 40(s1), 54–67.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1992.tb01812.x

Riker, W. H. (1982). Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. W.H. Freeman.

Waters, N., & Hans, V. (2009). A Jury of One: Opinion Formation, Conformity, and Dissent on Juries. Cornell Law Faculty Publications, 6(3), 513–540.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1740-1461.2009.01152.x

2.2.2.3.2 Tactical voting is based on misinformation

Dummett, M. (1997). Principles of electoral reform. Oxford University Press.

2.2.2.3.3 Tactical voting is irrational

Behn, R. D., & Vaupel, J. W. (1984). The wasted vote fallacy. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 3(4), 607–612.
https://doi.org/10.1002/pam.4050030411

2.2.2.4 Analysis

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Mueller, D. C. (2003). Public Choice III. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511813771

2.2.2.5 Empirical literature ⏵

Allen, N., & Bartle, J. (2018). None past the post: Britain at the polls, 2017 (021286188). Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526133281.001.0001

Allisson, F., & Brisset, N. (2014). Une approche stratégique du vote. Revue Economique, 65(3), 681–686.

Baujard, A., Gavrel, F., Igersheim, H., Laslier, J.-F., & Lebon, I. (2013). Approval Voting, Evaluation Voting. Revue Économique, 64(2), 345–356.

Baujard, A., & Igersheim, H. (2009). Expérimentation du vote par note et du vote par approbation le 22 avril 2007. Revue economique, 60(1), 189–201.

Cox, G. W. (1997). Making Votes Count: Strategic Coordination in the World’s Electoral Systems. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139174954

Eggers, A. C., & Vivyan, N. (2020). Who votes more strategically? American Political Science Review, 114(2), 470–485.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000820

Heath, A., & Evans, G. (1994). Tactical Voting: Concepts, Measurement and Findings. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 557–561.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007018

Kselman, D., & Niou, E. (2011). Protest voting in plurality elections: A theory of voter signaling. Public Choice, 148(3), 395–418.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9661-2

Kurella, A.-S., & Rosset, J. (2017). Blind spots in the party system: Spatial voting and issue salience if voters face scarce choices. Electoral Studies, 49, 1–16.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2017.07.001

Mark, F., Niemi, R., & Whitten, G. (1994). The Two Faces of Tactical Voting. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 549–557.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007006

Martikainen, P., Martikainen, T., & Wass, H. (2005). The effect of socioeconomic factors on voter turnout in Finland: A register-based study of 2.9 million voters. European Journal of Political Research, 44(5), 645–669.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2005.00242.x

Selb, P. (2012). Strategic adaptation to new electoral systems. European Journal of Political Research, 51(5), 583–606.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2011.02049.x

Tyson, S. A. (2016). Information Acquisition, Strategic Voting, and Improving the Qualify of Democratic Choice. The Journal of Politics, 78(4), 1016–1031.
https://doi.org/10.1086/686027

2.2.2.5.1 Sociology of tactical voting

Eggers, A. C., & Vivyan, N. (2020). Who votes more strategically? American Political Science Review, 114(2), 470–485.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000820

2.2.2.5.2 Studies on British elections

Allen, N., & Bartle, J. (2018). None past the post: Britain at the polls, 2017 (021286188). Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9781526133281.001.0001

Heath, A., & Evans, G. (1994). Tactical Voting: Concepts, Measurement and Findings. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 557–561.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007018

Mark, F., Niemi, R., & Whitten, G. (1994). The Two Faces of Tactical Voting. British Journal of Political Science, 24(4), 549–557.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007006

Nicholls, T., & Hayton, R. (2020). Splitting the Tactical Vote? Coordination Problems with Polling Model-Driven Tactical Voting Websites. The Political Quarterly, 91(1), 61–69.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12822

2.2.2.5.3 Studies on French elections ⏵

Blais, A. (2004). Y a-t-il un vote stratégique en France ? In Le nouveau désordre électoral (pp. 279–301). Presses de Sciences Po.

2.2.2.5.3.1 Experimentations

Allisson, F., & Brisset, N. (2014). Une approche stratégique du vote. Revue Economique, 65(3), 681–686.

Baujard, A., Gavrel, F., Igersheim, H., Laslier, J.-F., & Lebon, I. (2013). Approval Voting, Evaluation Voting. Revue Économique, 64(2), 345–356.

Baujard, A., & Igersheim, H. (2009). Expérimentation du vote par note et du vote par approbation le 22 avril 2007. Revue economique, 60(1), 189–201.

2.2.2.5.4 Tactical voting in proportional representation

Abramson, P. R., Aldrich, J. H., Blais, A., Diamond, M., Diskin, A., Indridason, I. H., Lee, D. J., & Levine, R. (2010). Comparing Strategic Voting Under FPTP and PR. Comparative Political Studies, 43(1), 61–90.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414009341717

Bargsted, M. A., & Kedar, O. (2009). Coalition-Targeted Duvergerian Voting: How Expectations Affect Voter Choice under Proportional Representation. American Journal of Political Science, 53(2), 307–323.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2009.00372.x

Blais, A., Aldrich, J. H., Indridason, I. H., & Levine, R. (2016). Do Voters Vote For Government Coalitions?: Testing Downs’ Pessimistic Conclusion. Party Politics, 12(6).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068806068594

Cox, G. W., & Shugart, M. S. (1996). Strategic Voting Under Proportional Representation. The Journal of Law, Economics, and Organization, 12(2), 299–324.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.jleo.a023365

Duch, R. M., May, J., & Armstrong, D. A. (2010). Coalition-directed Voting in Multiparty Democracies. The American Political Science Review, 104(4), 698–719.
https://doi.org/10.2307/40982893

Fredén, A. (2014). Threshold Insurance Voting in PR Systems: A Study of Voters’ Strategic Behavior in the 2010 Swedish General Election. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 24(4), 473–492.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2013.872118

García-Viñuela, E., Artés, J., & Jurado, I. (2015). Strategic voting and non-voting in Spanish elections. Party Politics, 21(5), 738–749.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1354068813499869

Hobolt, S. B., & Karp, J. A. (2010). Voters and coalition governments. Electoral Studies, 29(3), 299–307.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135406881349986910.1016/j.electstud.2010.03.010

Irwin, G. A., & Van Holsteyn, J. J. M. (2012). Strategic electoral considerations under proportional representation. Electoral Studies, 31(1), 184–191.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135406881349986910.1016/j.electstud.2011.10.007

Meffert, M. F., & Gschwend, T. (2010). Strategic coalition voting: Evidence from Austria. Electoral Studies, 29(3), 339–349.
https://doi.org/10.1177/135406881349986910.1016/j.electstud.2010.03.005

Riambau, G. (2015). Bandwagon or strategic voting in Israel? Note on Bargsted and Kedar 2009. Electoral Studies, 37, 63–72.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2014.10.007

Riera, P. (2015). Tactical Voting. In Oxford Handbook Topics in Politics.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199935307.013.55

2.2.2.6 Game theoretic approaches ⏵

2.2.2.6.1 Impact of strategic voting on Condorcet Jury Theorem

Austen-Smith, D., & Banks, J. S. (1996). Information Aggregation, Rationality, and the Condorcet Jury. The American Political Science Review; Washington, 90(1), 34.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2082796

Coughlan, P. J. (2000). In Defense of Unanimous Jury Verdicts: Mistrials, Communication, and Strategic Voting. The American Political Science Review, 94(2), 375–393.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2586018

Feddersen, T., & Pesendorfer, W. (1998). Convicting the Innocent: The Inferiority of Unanimous Jury Verdicts under Strategic Voting. The American Political Science Review, 92(1), 23–35.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2585926

Gerardi, D. (2000). Jury Verdicts and Preference Diversity. The American Political Science Review, 94(2), 395–406.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2586019

Guarnaschelli, S., McKelvey, R. D., & Palfrey, T. R. (2000). An Experimental Study of Jury Decision Rules. The American Political Science Review, 94(2), 407–423.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2586020

Wit, J. (1998). Rational Choice and the Condorcet Jury Theorem. Games and Economic Behavior, 22(2), 364–376.
https://doi.org/10.1006/game.1997.0596

2.2.2.6.2 Theories of strategic voting

Myatt, D. P. (2007). On the Theory of Strategic Voting. The Review of Economic Studies, 74(1), 255–281.

2.2.2.7 Social choice theory

Black, D. (1958). The theory of committees and elections. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-009-4225-7

Coleman, J., & Ferejohn, J. (1986). Democracy and Social Choice. Ethics, 97(1), 6–25.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2381403

Gibbard, A. (1973). Manipulation of Voting Schemes: A General Result. Econometrica, 41(4), 587–601.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1914083

Miller, D. (1992). Deliberative Democracy and Social Choice. Political Studies, 40(s1), 54–67.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.1992.tb01812.x

Riker, W. H. (1982). Liberalism Against Populism: A Confrontation between the Theory of Democracy and the Theory of Social Choice. W.H. Freeman.

Satterthwaite, M. A. (1975). Strategy-proofness and Arrow’s conditions: Existence and correspondence theorems for voting procedures and social welfare functions. Journal of Economic Theory, 10(2), 187–217.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0022-0531(75)90050-2

2.2.3 Voting backward/forward?

Fiorina, M. P. (1981). Retrospective voting in American national elections. Yale University Press.

Ingham, S. (2019). Rule by Multiple Majorities: A New Theory of Popular Control. Cambridge University Press.
ttps://doi.org/10.1017/9781108683821

Kanazawa, S. (1998). A Possible Solution to the Paradox of Voter Turnout. The Journal of Politics, 60(4), 974–995.
ttps://doi.org/10.2307/2647727

Kanazawa, S. (2000). A New Solution to the Collective Action Problem: The Paradox of Voter Turnout. American Sociological Review, 433–442.
ttps://doi.org/10.2307/2657465

Manin, B., Przeworski, A., & Stokes, S. C. (1999). Elections and Representation. In A. Przeworski, S. C. Stokes, & B. Manin (Eds.), Democracy, Accountability, and Representation (1st ed., pp. 29–54). Cambridge University Press.
ttps://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139175104.002

2.2.4 Candidate characteristics ⏵

Banai, B., Laustsen, L., Banai, I. P., & Bovan, K. (2018). Presidential, But Not Prime Minister, Candidates With Lower Pitched Voices Stand a Better Chance of Winning the Election in Conservative Countries. Evolutionary Psychology, 16(2).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704918758736

Banducci, S. A., Karp, J. A., Thrasher, M., & Rallings, C. (2008). Ballot Photographs as Cues in Low-Information Elections. Political Psychology, 29(6), 903–917.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9221.2008.00672.x

Barber, J. D. (2017). The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351223706

Bauer, N. M. (2015). Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office? Gender Stereotype Activation and Support Female Candidates: Emotional, Sensitive, and Unfit for Office? Political Psychology, 36(6), 691–708.
https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12186

Berinsky, A. J., Chatfield, S., & Lenz, G. (2019). Facial Dominance and Electoral Success in Times of War and Peace. The Journal of Politics, 81(3), 1096–1100.
https://doi.org/10.1086/703384

Bøggild, T., & Laustsen, L. (2016). An intra-group perspective on leader preferences: Different risks of exploitation shape preferences for leader facial dominance. The Leadership Quarterly, 27(6), 820–837.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2016.09.003

Hardy, B. W. (2014). Candidate Traits and Political Choice. In K. Kenski & K. H. Jamieson (Eds.), The Oxford Handbook of Political Communication (pp. 437–450). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.017_update_001

Hayes, D. (2005). Candidate qualities through a partisan lens: A theory of trait ownership. American Journal of Political Science, 49(4), 908–923.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-5907.2005.00163.x

Jäckle, S., Metz, T., Wenzelburger, G., & König, P. D. (2019). A Catwalk to Congress? Appearance-Based Effects in the Elections to the U.S. House of Representatives 2016. American Politics Research, 48(4), 427–441.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X19875710

King, A. (Ed.). (2002). Leaders’ Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/0199253137.001.0001

Klofstad, C. A. (2017). Looks and Sounds Like a Winner: Perceptions of Competence in Candidates’ Faces and Voices Influences Vote Choice. Journal of Experimental Political Science, 4(3), 229–240.
https://doi.org/10.1017/XPS.2017.19

Laustsen, L. (2017). Choosing the Right Candidate: Observational and Experimental Evidence that Conservatives and Liberals Prefer Powerful and Warm Candidate Personalities, Respectively. Political Behavior, 39(4), 883–908.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-016-9384-2

Laustsen, L., & Bor, A. (2017). The relative weight of character traits in political candidate evaluations: Warmth is more important than competence, leadership and integrity. Electoral Studies, 49, 96–107.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2017.08.001

Laustsen, L., & Petersen, M. B. (2015). Does a competent leader make a good friend? Conflict, ideology and the psychologies of friendship and followership. Evolution and Human Behavior, 36(4), 286–293.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2015.01.001

Laustsen, L., & Petersen, M. B. (2017). Perceived Conflict and Leader Dominance: Individual and Contextual Factors Behind Preferences for Dominant Leaders. Political Psychology, 38(6), 1083–1101.
https://doi.org/10.1111/pops.12403

Laustsen, L., & Petersen, M. B. (2019). Why are right-wing voters attracted to dominant leaders? Assessing competing theories of psychological mechanisms. The Leadership Quarterly.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.leaqua.2019.06.002

Laustsen, L., Petersen, M. B., & Klofstad, C. A. (2015). Vote Choice, Ideology, and Social Dominance Orientation Influence Preferences for Lower Pitched Voices in Political Candidates. Evolutionary Psychology, 13(3).
https://doi.org/10.1177/1474704915600576

Miller, W. E., Shanks, J. M., & Shapiro, R. Y. (1996). The New American Voter. Harvard University Press.

Ondercin, H. L., & Fulton, S. A. (2019). Bargain Shopping: How Candidate Sex Lowers the Cost of Voting. Politics & Gender, 16(3), 1–27.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1743923X19000254

Potrafke, N., Rösch, M., & Ursprung, H. (2020). Election systems, the “beauty premium” in politics, and the beauty of dissent. European Journal of Political Economy, 64, 101900.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ejpoleco.2020.101900

2.2.4.1 Theories of relevance of characteristics ⏵

Barber, J. D. (2017). The Presidential Character: Predicting Performance in the White House. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781351223706

Bartels, L. M. (2002). The Impact of Candidate Traits in American Presidential Elections. In A. King (Ed.), Leaders’ Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections (pp. 44–69). Oxford Academic.
https://doi.org/10.1093/0199253137.003.0002

Enelow, J. M., & Hinich, M. J. (1982). Nonspatial candidate characteristics and electoral competition. The Journal of Politics, 44(1), 115–130.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2130286

Hochschild, J., Piston, S., & Weaver, V. M. (2021). My Group or Myself? How Black, Latino, and White Americans Choose a Neighborhood, Job, and Candidate when Personal and Group Interest Diverge. Perspectives on Politics, 19(4), 1184–1204.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S153759272000482X

King, A. (2002a). Do leaders’ personalities really matter. In A. King (Ed.), Leaders’ Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections (pp. 1–43). Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/0199253137.003.0001

King, A. (Ed.). (2002b). Leaders’ Personalities and the Outcomes of Democratic Elections. Oxford University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1093/0199253137.001.0001

Miller, W. E., Shanks, J. M., & Shapiro, R. Y. (1996). The New American Voter. Harvard University Press.

2.2.4.1.1 Directional models ⏵

Adams, J., Bishin, B. G., & Dow, J. K. (2004). Representation in Congressional Campaigns: Evidence for Discounting/Directional Voting in U.S. Senate Elections. The Journal of Politics, 66(2), 348–373.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-2508.2004.00155.x

Carroll, J. D. (1972). Individual differences and multidimensional scaling. In R. N. Shepard, K. Romney, & S. B. Nerlove (Eds.), Multidimesional scaling. Theory and applications in the behavioral sciences (Vol. 1, pp. 105–155). Seminar Press.

Cho, S., & Endersby, J. W. (2003). Issues, the Spatial Theory of Voting, and British General Elections: A Comparison of Proximity and Directional Models. Public Choice, 114(3–4), 275–293.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1022616323373

Dow, J. K. (1998). Directional and proximity models of voter choice in recent US presidential elections. Public Choice, 96(3–4), 259–270.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004958100196

Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/1827369

Gilljam, M. (1997a). Response to Macdonald, Rabinowitz and Listhaug: Realistic Assumptions or Directional Theory? Journal of Theoretical Politics, 9(1), 23–24.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692897009001003

Gilljam, M. (1997b). Symposium. The directional theory of issue voting: I: The directional theory under the magnifying glass: A reappraisal. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 9(1), 5–12.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692897009001001

Granberg, D., & Gilljam, M. (1997). Implausible hypotheses in the directional theory of issue voting. European Journal of Political Research, 32(1), 31–50.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00330

Iversen, T. (1994). The logics of electoral politics: Spatial, directional, and mobilizational effects. Comparative Political Studies, 27(2), 155–189.

Krämer, J., & Rattinger, H. (1997). The proximity and the directional theories of issue voting: Comparative results for the USA and Germany. European Journal of Political Research, 32(1), 1–29.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1006866319508

Lacy, D., & Paolino, P. (2010). Testing proximity versus directional voting using experiments. Electoral Studies, 29(3), 460–471.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2010.04.008

Macdonald, S. E., & Rabinowitz, G. (1993). Direction and uncertainty in a model of issue voting. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 5(1), 61–87.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692893005001003

Macdonald, S. E., Rabinowitz, G., & Listhaug, O. (1995). Political sophistication and models of issue voting. British Journal of Political Science, 25(4), 453–483.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123400007316

Maddens, B. (1996). Directional theory of issue voting: The case of the 1991 parliamentary elections in Flanders. Electoral Studies, 15(1), 53–70.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(94)00037-9 Get rights and content

Matthews, S. A. (1979). A simple direction model of electoral competition. Public Choice, 34(2), 141–156.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00129523

Merrill III, S., & Grofman, B. (1997). Symposium. The Directional Theory of Issue Voting: II: Directional and Proximity Models of Voter Utility and Choice: A New Synthesis and an Illustrative Test of Competing Model. Journal Of Theoretical Politics, 9(1), 25–48.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692897009001004

Merrill III, S., Merrill, S., & Grofman, B. (1999). A unified theory of voting: Directional and proximity spatial models. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511605864

Merrill, S. (1993). Voting behavior under the directional spatial model of electoral competition. Public Choice, 77(4), 739–756.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01047992

Pierce, R. (1997). Symposium. The Directional Theory of Issue Voting: III: Directional versus Proximity Models: Verisimilitude as the Criterion. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 9(1), 61–74.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951692897009001007

Rabinowitz, G. (1978). On the Nature of Political Issues: Insights from a Spatial Analysis. American Journal of Political Science, 793–817.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2110591

Rabinowitz, G., & Macdonald, S. E. (1989). A Directional Theory of Issue Voting. American Political Science Review, 83(1), 93–121.
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Reynolds, H. (1974). Rationality and attitudes toward political parties and candidates. The Journal of Politics, 36(4), 983–1005.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2129403

2.2.4.1.1.1 Empirical models

Dow, J. K. (1998). Directional and proximity models of voter choice in recent US presidential elections. Public Choice, 96(3–4), 259–270.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004958100196

Merrill III, S., Merrill, S., & Grofman, B. (1999). A unified theory of voting: Directional and proximity spatial models. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511605864

2.2.5 Informed voting

Baurmann, M., & Brennan, G. (2009). What Should the Voter Know? Epistemic Trust in Democracy. Grazer Philosophische Studien, 79(1), 159–186.
https://doi.org/10.1163/18756735-90000863

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Elster, J. (2009). Excessive Ambitions. Capitalism and Society, 4(2).
https://doi.org/10.2202/1932-0213.1055

Gaus, Gerald. (2008). Is the Public Incompetent? Compared to Whom? About What? Critical Review, 20(3), 291–311.

Mokrosinska, D. (2015). How much privacy for public officials? In B. Roessler & D. Mokrosinska (Eds.), Social Dimensions of Privacy: Interdisciplinary Perspectives (pp. 181–201). Cambridge University Press.

Ottonelli, V. (2018). Citizens’ Political Prudence as a Democratic Virtue. Metaphilosophy, 49(3), 388–406.
https://doi.org/10.1111/meta.12302

Robson, G. (2020). The Right to Inquire into the Personal Worldviews of Candidates for Public Office. Public Affairs Quarterly, 43(1), 72–96.
https://doi.org/10.2307/26915687

Thompson, D. F. (2002). Just Elections: Creating a Fair Electoral Process in the United States. University of Chicago Press.

Tyson, S. A. (2016). Information Acquisition, Strategic Voting, and Improving the Qualify of Democratic Choice. The Journal of Politics, 78(4), 1016–1031.
https://doi.org/10.1086/686027

2.2.6 Rational choice theories ⏵

2.2.6.1 Critiques

Blais, A. (2000). To vote or not to vote? The merits and limits of rational choice theory. University of Pittsburgh Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctt5hjrrf

Green, D., & Shapiro, I. (1994). Pathologies of Rational Choice Theory: A Critique of Applications in Political Science. Yale University Press.

2.2.6.2 Expressive theories ⏵

Brennan, G., & Hamlin, A. (1998). Expressive voting and electoral equilibrium. Public Choice, 95(1–2), 149–175.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1004936203144

Brennan, G., & Lomasky, L. E. (1993). Democracy and decision: The pure theory of electoral preference. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139173544

Carter, J. R., & Guerette, S. D. (1992). An experimental study of expressive voting. Public Choice, 73(3), 251–260.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00140921

Fischer, A. J. (1996). A further experimental study of expressive voting. Public Choice, 88(1–2), 171–184.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00130417

Goodin, R. E., & Roberts, K. W. S. (1975). The Ethical Voter. American Political Science Review, 69(3), 926–928.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1958406

Hamlin, A., & Jennings, C. (2011). Expressive Political Behaviour: Foundations, Scope and Implications. British Journal of Political Science, 41(3), 645–670.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123411000020

Jones, P., & Hudson, J. (2000). Civic Duty and Expressive Voting: Is Virtue its own Reward? Kyklos, 53(1), 3–16.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-6435.00106

Kamenica, E., & Brad, L. E. (2014). Voters, dictators, and peons: Expressive voting and pivotality. Public Choice, 159(1–2), 159–176.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/24507666

Kan, K., & Yang, C.-C. (2001). On expressive voting: Evidence from the 1988 US presidential election. Public Choice, 108(3–4), 295–312.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017556626815

Schuessler, A. A. (2000a). A Logic of Expressive Choice. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9780691222417

Schuessler, A. A. (2000b). Expressive Voting. Rationality and Society, 12(1), 87–119.

Tyran, J.-R. (2004). Voting when money and morals conflict: An experimental test of expressive voting. Journal of Public Economics, 88(7–8), 1645–1664.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0047-2727(03)00016-1

Winkler, A. (2009). Expressive Voting (Research Paper 09–14; p. 60).

2.2.6.2.1 Empirical

Carter, J. R., & Guerette, S. D. (1992). An experimental study of expressive voting. Public Choice, 73(3), 251–260.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00140921

Fischer, A. J. (1996). A further experimental study of expressive voting. Public Choice, 88(1–2), 171–184.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00130417

Kamenica, E., & Brad, L. E. (2014). Voters, dictators, and peons: Expressive voting and pivotality. Public Choice, 159(1–2), 159–176.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/24507666

Kan, K., & Yang, C.-C. (2001). On expressive voting: Evidence from the 1988 US presidential election. Public Choice, 108(3–4), 295–312.
https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1017556626815

Kselman, D., & Niou, E. (2011). Protest voting in plurality elections: A theory of voter signaling. Public Choice, 148(3), 395–418.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-010-9661-2

2.2.6.3 Mini-max regret

Beck, N. (1975). The Paradox of Minimax Regret. American Political Science Review, 69(3), 918–918.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1958403

Blais, A., Young, R., Fleury, C., & Lapp, M. (1995). Do People Vote on the Basis of Minimax Regret? Political Research Quarterly, 48(4), 827–836.
https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299504800408

Ferejohn, J. A., & Fiorina, M. P. (1974). The Paradox of Not Voting: A Decision Theoretic Analysis. American Political Science Review, 68(2), 525–536.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1959502

Mayer, L. S., & Good, I. (1975). American Political Science Review Article contents Extract References Is Minimax Regret Applicable to Voting Decisions? American Political Science Review, 69(3), 916–917.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1958402

Stephens, S. V. (1975). The Paradox of Not Voting: Comment. American Political Science Review, 69(3), 914–915.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1958401

Tideman, T. N. (1985). Remorse, elation, and the paradox of voting. Public Choice, 103–106.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00150969

2.2.6.4 Proximity models ⏵

Blais, A., Nadeau, R., Gidengil, E., & Nevitte, N. (2001). The formation of party preferences: Testing the proximity and directional models. European Journal of Political Research, 40(1), 81–91.
ttps://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6765.00590

Downs, A. (1957). An Economic Theory of Democracy. Harper.
ttps://www.jstor.org/stable/1827369

Lewis, J. B., & King, G. (1999). No Evidence on Directional vs. Proximity Voting. Political Analysis, 8(1), 21–33.
ttps://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordjournals.pan.a029803

Macdonald, S. E., Rabinowitz, G., & Listhaug, O. (1998). On Attempting to Rehabilitate the Proximity Model: Sometimes the Patient Just Can’t Be Helped. The Journal of Politics, 60(3), 653–690.
ttps://doi.org/10.2307/2647643

Merrill III, S. (1995). Discriminating between the directional and proximity spatial models of electoral competition. Electoral Studies, 14(3), 273–287.
ttps://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(94)00004-S

Morris, I. L., & Rabinowitz, G. (1997). Symposium. The Directional Theory of Issue Voting: IV: On the Coexistence of Directional and Proximity Voters. Journal of Theoretical Politics, 9(1), 75–88.
ttps://doi.org/10.1177/0951692897009001008

Platt, G., Poole, K. T., & Rosenthal, H. (1992). Directional and Euclidean theories of voting behavior: A legislative comparison. Legislative Studies Quarterly, XVII(4), 561–572.

2.2.6.1.1 Critiques-modifications

Grofman, B. (1985). The Neglected Role of the Status Quo in Models of Issue Voting. The Journal of Politics, 47(1), 230–237.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2131073

2.2.7 Party ID

Campbell, A., Converse, P. E., Miller, W. E., & Stokes, D. E. (1980). The American Voter. University of Chicago Press.

Fiorina, M. P. (1977). An outline for a model of party choice. American Journal of Political Science, 21(3), 601–625.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2110583

2.2.8 Electoral ergonomics

Blom-Hansen, J., Elklit, J., Serritzlew, S., & Villadsen, L. R. (2016). Ballot position and election results: Evidence from a natural experiment. Electoral Studies, 44, 172–183.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.06.019

Bruter, M. (2019). Electoral ergonomics: Three empirical examples of the interface between electoral psychology and design. Societies, 9(4), 82.
https://doi.org/10.3390/soc9040082

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2017a). EU referendum: Breaking indifference. London School of Economics and Political Science.
https://www.lse.ac.uk/about-lse/connect/connect-2017/eu-referendum-breaking-indifference.aspx

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2017b). Understanding the emotional act of voting. Nature Human Behaviour, 1(1), 1–3.
https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-016-0024

Bruter, M., & Harrison, S. (2020). Inside the mind of a voter: A new approach to electoral psychology. Princeton University Press.

CORDIS - European Commission. (2016). INMIVO (Inside the mind of a voter—Memory, Identity, and Electoral Psychology).
https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/241187/reporting

Harrison, S. (2020). Democratic Frustration: Concept, Dimensions and Behavioural Consequences. Societies, 10(1), 19.
https://doi.org/10.3390/soc10010019

2.3 How do voters feel?

Coleman, S. (2013). How Voters Feel. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139035354

3. INSTITUTIONAL DESIGN ⏵

Knight, J., & Johnson, J. (2011). The Priority of Democracy: Political Consequences of Pragmatism. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400840335

3.1 Compulsory voting ⏵

Bechtel, M. M., Hangartner, D., & Schmid, L. (2016). Does Compulsory Voting Increase Support for Leftist Policy? American Journal of Political Science, 60(3), 752–767.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12224

Malkopoulou, A. (2020). Compulsory voting and right-wing populism: Mobilisation, representation and socioeconomic inequalities. Australian Journal of Political Science, 55(3), 276–292.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2020.1774507

Singh, S. P. (2018). Compulsory voting and dissatisfaction with democracy. British Journal of Political Science, 48(3), 843–854.

Thaysen, J. D., & Albertsen, A. (2020). Mandated Choice Policies: When Are They Preferable? Political Research Quarterly, 74(3), 744–755.

3.1.1 Defences

Birch, S. (2009). The case for compulsory voting. Public Policy Research, 16(1), 21–27.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1744-540X.2009.00550.x

Brennan, J., & Hill, L. (2014). Compulsory Voting: For and Against. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139649742

Chapman, E. B. (2019). The Distinctive Value of Elections and the Case for Compulsory Voting. American Journal of Political Science, 63(1), 101–112.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12393

Engelen, B. (2007). Why Compulsory Voting Can Enhance Democracy. Acta Politica, 42(1), 23–39.
https://doi.org/10.1057/palgrave.ap.5500167

Hasen, R. L. (1996). Voting without Law? University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 144(5), 2135–2179.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3312650

Hill, L. (2002). On the Reasonableness of Compelling Citizens to ‘Vote’: The Australian Case. Political Studies, 50(1), 80–101.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9248.00360

Hill, L. (2006). Low Voter Turnout in the United States: Is Compulsory Voting a Viable Solution? Journal of Theoretical Politics, 18(2), 207–232.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629806061868

Hill, L. (2010). On the Justifiability of Compulsory Voting: Reply to Lever. British Journal of Political Science, 40(4), 917–923.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123410000153

Hill, L. (2013). Deliberative Democracy and Compulsory Voting. Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy, 12(4), 454–467.
https://doi.org/10.1089/elj.2013.0204

Hughes, C. A. (1966). Compulsory voting. Politics, 1(2), 81–95.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00323266608401077

Jakee, K., & Sun, G.-Z. (2006). Is compulsory voting more democratic? Public Choice, 129(1–2), 61–75.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-005-9008-6

Lacroix, J. (2007). A Liberal Defence of Compulsory Voting. Politics, 27(3), 190–195.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9256.2007.00299.x

Lijphart, A. (1997). Unequal Participation: Democracy’s Unresolved Dilemma. The American Political Science Review, 91(1), 1–14.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2952255

Malkopoulou, A. (2009). Lost Voters: Participation in EU elections and the case for compulsory voting (CEPS Working Document 317). CEPS.

Umbers, L. M. (2020). Compulsory Voting: A Defence. British Journal of Political Science, 50(4), 1307–1324.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123418000303

3.1.2 Objections

Bechtel, M. M., Hangartner, D., & Schmid, L. (2015). Does Compulsory Voting Increase Support for Leftist Policy? American Journal of Political Science, 60(3), 752–767.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12224

Brennan, J. (2012). The Ethics of Voting. Princeton University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1515/9781400842094

Brennan, J., & Hill, L. (2014). Compulsory Voting: For and Against. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781139649742

Jakee, K., & Sun, G.-Z. (2006). Is compulsory voting more democratic? Public Choice, 129(1–2), 61–75.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11127-005-9008-6

Lever, A. (2009a). Is compulsory voting justified? Public Reason, 1(1), 57–74.

Lever, A. (2009b). Liberalism, Democracy and the Ethics of Voting. Politics, 29(3), 223–227.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9256.2009.01359.x

Lever, A. (2010a). Compulsory Voting: A Critical Perspective. British Journal of Political Science, 40(4), 897–915.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123410000050

Lever, A. (2010b). Democracy and Voting: A Response to Lisa Hill. British Journal of Political Science, 40(4), 925–929.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123410000177

Lever, A., Volacu, A., Lever, A., & Poama, A. (2018). Should Voting Be Compulsory? Democracy and the Ethics of Voting. In The Routledge Handbook of Ethics and Public Policy (pp. 242–254). Routledge.

Rovenský, J. (2008). Voting: A citizen’s right, or duty? The case against compulsory voting. [PhD]. LUISS Guido Carli.

Saunders, B. (2010). Increasing Turnout: A Compelling Case? Politics, 30(1), 70–77.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9256.2009.01368.x

Saunders, B. (2018). A Further Defence of the Right Not to Vote. Res Publica, 24(1), 93–108.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9391-0

Singh, S. P. (2016). Elections as poorer reflections of preferences under compulsory voting. Electoral Studies, 44, 56–65.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.08.005

Swenson, K. M. (2007). Sticks, carrots, donkey votes, and true choice: A rationale for abolishing compulsory voting in Australia. Minnesota Journal of International Law, 16, 525.

Thaysen, J. D., Uhrenfeldt, R., & Sønderholm, J. (2020). Compulsion, Secrecy, and Paper: A Bad Combination When It Comes to Voting. Public Affairs Quarterly, 34(3), 229–244.
https://doi.org/10.2307/26929783

3.1.3 History

Australian Electoral Commission. (2011). Compulsory voting in Australia. Australian Electoral Commission.
https://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/Publications/voting/index.htm

Brett, J. (2019a). From secret ballot to democracy sausage: How Australia got compulsory voting. Text Publishing.

Brett, J. (2019b, March 1). Australia does elections better than almost anyone—And compulsory voting is why [Text]. ABC News.
https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-03-01/compulsory-voting-federal-election-the-good-bits-of-politics/10825482

Evans, T. (2006). Compulsory Voting in Australia. Australian Electoral Commission.
https://www.aec.gov.au/About_AEC/Publications/voting/files/compulsory-voting.pdf

Helmke, G., & Meguid, B. M. (2007). Endogenous institutions: The origins of compulsory voting laws. 39.

Hill, L. (2010). Public acceptance of compulsory voting: Explaining the Australian case. Representation, 46(4), 425–438.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2010.518089

International IDEA. (n.d.). Compulsory Voting. Voter Turnout Database.
https://www.idea.int/data-tools/data/voter-turnout/compulsory-voting

Loewen, P. J., Milner, H., & Hicks, B. M. (2008). Does compulsory voting lead to more informed and engaged citizens? An experimental test. Canadian Journal of Political Science/Revue Canadienne de Science Politique, 41(3), 655–672.

Maldonado, A. (2015). The Origins and Consequences of Compulsory Voting in Latin America. Vanderbilt University.

Malkopoulou, A. (2014). The history of compulsory voting in Europe: Democracy’s duty? Routledge.

Pringle, H. (2012). Compulsory voting in Australia: What is compulsory? Australian Journal of Political Science, 47(3), 427–440.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2012.704001

Sabbati, G., Sgueo, G., & Dobreva, A. (2019). 2019 European elections: National rules (PE 623.556). European Parliamentary Research Service.
https://www.europarl.europa.eu/RegData/etudes/ATAG/2018/623556/EPRS_ATA(2018)623556_EN.pdf

3.1.4 Empirical effects

Barnes, T. D., & Rangel, G. (2018). Subnational patterns of participation: Compulsory voting and the conditional impact of institutional design. Political Research Quarterly, 71(4), 826–841.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1065912918763746

Bechtel, M. M., Hangartner, D., & Schmid, L. (2018). Compulsory Voting, Habit Formation, and Political Participation. Review of Economics and Statistics, 100(3), 467–476.
https://doi.org/10.1162/rest_a_00701

Bhattacharya, S., Duffy, J., & Kim, S.-T. (2014). Compulsory versus voluntary voting: An experimental study. Games and Economic Behavior, 84, 111–131.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geb.2013.12.008

Birch, S. (2009). Full Participation: A Comparative Study of Compulsory Voting. Manchester University Press.
https://doi.org/10.7228/manchester/9780719077623.001.0001

Birch, S. (2018). Democratic Norms, Empirical Realities and Approaches to Improving Voter Turnout. Res Publica, 24(1), 9–30.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9380-3

Birch, S., & Lodge, G. (2015). Voter Engagement, Electoral Inequality and First‐Time Compulsory Voting. The Political Quarterly, 86(3), 385–392.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12178

Bugarin, M., & Portugal, A. (2015). Should Voting Be Mandatory? The Effect of Compulsory Voting Rules on Candidates’ Political Platforms. Journal of Applied Economics, 18(1), 1–19.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S1514-0326(15)30001-5

Carey, J. M., & Horiuchi, Y. (2017). Compulsory Voting and Income Inequality: Evidence for Lijphart’s Proposition from Venezuela. Latin American Politics and Society, 59(2), 122–144.

Carreras, M. (2016). Compulsory voting and political engagement (beyond the ballot box): A multilevel analysis. Electoral Studies, 43, 158–168.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.04.005

Cepaluni, G., & Hidalgo, F. D. (2016). Compulsory Voting Can Increase Political Inequality: Evidence from Brazil. Political Analysis, 24(2), 273–280.
https://doi.org/10.1093/pan/mpw004

Chong, A., & Olivera, M. (2005). On Compulsory Voting and Income Inequality in a Cross-Section of Countries (Working Paper 444; p. 26).

Chong, A., & Olivera, M. (2008). Does compulsory voting help equalize incomes? Economics & Politics, 20(3), 391–415.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0343.2008.00336.x

Córdova, A., & Rangel, G. (2017). Addressing the gender gap: The effect of compulsory voting on women’s electoral engagement. Comparative Political Studies, 50(2), 264–290.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016655537

Dassonneville, R., Feitosa, F., Hooghe, M., Lau, R. R., & Stiers, D. (2019). Compulsory Voting Rules, Reluctant Voters and Ideological Proximity Voting. Political Behavior, 41(1), 209–230.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-018-9448-6

De Winter, L., & Ackaert, J. (1998). Compulsory voting in Belgium: A reply to Hooghe and Pelleriaux. Electoral Studies, 17(4), 425–428.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00022-5

Dunaiski, M. (2021). Is compulsory voting habit-forming? Regression discontinuity evidence from Brazil. Electoral Studies, 71, 102334.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2021.102334

Feitosa, F., Blais, A., & Dassonneville, R. (2020). Does Compulsory Voting Foster Civic Duty to Vote? Election Law Journal: Rules, Politics, and Policy, 19(1), 19–44.
https://doi.org/10.1089/elj.2018.0539

Fowler, A. (2013). Electoral and Policy Consequences of Voter Turnout: Evidence from Compulsory Voting in Australia. Quarterly Journal of Political Science, 8(2), 159–182.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1816649

Hasen, R. L. (1996). Voting without Law? University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 144(5), 2135–2179.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3312650

Highfield, T., & Bruns, A. (2016). Compulsory voting, Encouraged tweeting? Australian elections and social media. In G. Enli, A. Bruns, A. O. Larsson, E. Skogerbo, & C. Christensen (Eds.), The Routledge companion to social media and politics (pp. 338–350). Routledge.

Hill, L. (2000). Compulsory voting, political shyness and welfare outcomes. Journal of Sociology, 36(1), 30–49.
https://doi.org/10.1177/144078330003600103

Hill, L., & Young, S. (2007). Protest or Error? Informal Voting and Compulsory Voting. Australian Journal of Political Science, 42(3), 515–521.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10361140701513646

Hoffman, M., León, G., & Lombardi, M. (2017). Compulsory voting, turnout, and government spending: Evidence from Austria. Journal of Public Economics, 145, 103–115.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpubeco.2016.10.002

Holbein, J., & Rangel, M. (2016). Does Voting Have Upstream and Downstream Consequences? Evidence from Compulsory Voting in Brazil (p. 63).
Http://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2809382

Hughes, C. A. (1966). Compulsory voting. Politics, 1(2), 81–95.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00323266608401077

Irwin, G. (1974). Compulsory Voting Legislation: Impact on Voter Turnout in the Netherlands. Comparative Political Studies, 7(3), 292–315.
https://doi.org/10.1177/001041407400700302

Jackman, S. (1999). Non-compulsory voting in Australia?: What surveys can (and can’t) tell us. Electoral Studies, 18(1), 29–48.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00040-7

Jackman, S. (2001). Compulsory voting. In N. J. Smelser & B. Baltes (Eds.), International Encyclopedia of the Social and Behavioral Sciences (pp. 16314–16318). Elsevier.

Jaitman, L. (2013). The causal effect of compulsory voting laws on turnout: Does skill matter? Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, 92, 79–93.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jebo.2013.05.008

Louth, J., & Hill, L. (2005). Compulsory voting in Australia: Turnout with and without it. Australian Review of Public Affairs, 6(1), 25–37.

Lundell, K. (2012). Civic participation and political trust: The impact of compulsory voting. Representation, 48(2), 221–234.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2012.683488

Mackerras, M., & McAllister, I. (1999). Compulsory voting, party stability and electoral advantage in Australia. Electoral Studies, 18(2), 217–233.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0261-3794(98)00047-X

Maldonado, A. (2015). The Origins and Consequences of Compulsory Voting in Latin America. Vanderbilt University.

McAllister, I., & Makkai, T. (1993). Institutions, society or protest? Explaining invalid votes in Australian elections. Electoral Studies, 12(1), 23–40.
https://doi.org/10.1016/0261-3794(93)90004-4

Miller, P., & Dassonneville, R. (2016). High turnout in the Low Countries: Partisan effects of the abolition of compulsory voting in the Netherlands. Electoral Studies, 44, 132–143.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2016.07.009

O’Toole, F., & Strobl, E. (1995). Compulsory voting and government spending. Economics & Politics, 7(3), 271–280.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1468-0343.1995.tb00115.x

Panagopoulos, C. (2008). The calculus of voting in compulsory voting systems. Political Behavior, 30(4), 455–467.

Power, T. J., & Roberts, J. T. (1995). Compulsory Voting, Invalid Ballots, and Abstention in Brazil. Political Research Quarterly, 48(4), 795–826.
https://doi.org/10.1177/106591299504800407

Selb, P., & Lachat, R. (2009). The more, the better? Counterfactual evidence on the effect of compulsory voting on the consistency of party choice. European Journal of Political Research, 48(5), 573–597.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2009.01834.x

Sheppard, J. (2015). Compulsory voting and political knowledge: Testing a ‘compelled engagement’hypothesis. Electoral Studies, 40, 300–307.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.10.005

Shineman, V. (2012). Isolating the effect of compulsory voting laws on political sophistication: Exploiting intra-national variation in mandatory voting laws between the Austrian provinces (p. 37). SSRN.
Http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2147871

Shineman, V. (2021). Isolating the effect of compulsory voting laws on political sophistication: Leveraging intra-national variation in mandatory voting laws between the Austrian Provinces. Electoral Studies, 71.
https://doi/org/10.1016/j.electstud.2020.102265

Shineman, V. A. (2018). If You Mobilize Them, They Will Become Informed: Experimental Evidence that Information Acquisition Is Endogenous to Costs and Incentives to Participate. British Journal of Political Science, 48(1), 189–211.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123416000168

Singh, S. (2011). How compelling is compulsory voting? A multilevel analysis of turnout. Political Behavior, 33(1), 95–111.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11109-010-9107-z

Singh, S. P. (2018). Compulsory voting and dissatisfaction with democracy. British Journal of Political Science, 48(3), 843–854.

Singh, S., & Thornton, J. (2013). Compulsory voting and the dynamics of partisan identification. European Journal of Political Research, 52(2), 188–211.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1475-6765.2012.02071.x

3.2 Epistocracy

Bhatia, U. (2018). Rethinking the epistemic case against epistocracy. Critical Review of International Social and Political Philosophy, 23(6), 706–731.
ttps://doi.org/10.1080/13698230.2018.1497246

Brennan, J. (2014). Epistocracy Within Public Reason. In Philosophical Perspectives on Democracy in the 21st Century (pp. 191–204). Springer.
ttps://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-02312-0_14

Brennan, J. (2016). Against Democracy. Princeton University Press.
ttps://doi.org/10.1515/9781400888399

Brennan, J. (2018). Does the demographic objection to epistocracy succeed? Res Publica, 24(1), 53–71.
ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-017-9385-y

Estlund, D., & Reshotko, N. (2003). Why not epistocracy? In Desire, Identity And Existence: Essays in Honor of T.M. Penner (pp. 53–69). Academic Printing and Publishing.
ttps://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv10kmfns.8

Gibbons, Adam F. (2021). Political Disagreement and Minimal Epistocracy. Journal of Ethics and Social Philosophy, 19(2), 192–201.
ttps://doi.org/10.26556/jesp.v19i2.1088

Goodin, R. E., & Spiekermann, K. (2018). An epistemic theory of democracy. Oxford University Press.
ttps://doi.org/10.1093/oso/9780198823452.001.0001

Gunn, P. (2014). Democracy and Epistocracy. Critical Review, 26(1–2), 59–79.
ttps://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2014.907041

Gunn, P. (2019). Against Epistocracy. Critical Review, 31(1), 26–82.
ttps://doi.org/10.1080/08913811.2019.1609842

olst, C. (2012). What is epistocracy? In Sacred Science? (pp. 41–54). Springer.

Jeffrey, A. (2018). Limited epistocracy and political inclusion. Episteme, 15(4), 412–432.
ttps://doi.org/10.1017/epi.2017.8

Landa, D., & Pevnick, R. (2020). Representative Democracy as Defensible Epistocracy. American Political Science Review, 114(1), 1–13.
ttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055419000509

Lippert-Rasmussen, K. (2012). Estlund on Epistocracy: A Critique. Res Publica, 18(3), 241–258.
ttps://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-012-9179-1

Madsen, Tine Hindkjaer. (2020). Civil Disobedience, Epistocracy and the Question of whether Superior Political Judgment Defeats Majority Authority. Journal of Moral Philosophy, 17(6), 606–632.
ttps://doi.org/10.1163/17455243-20203144

Moraro, Piero. (2018). Against Epistocracy. Social Theory and Practice, 44(2), 199–216.

Mulligan, Thomas. (2015). On the compatibility of Epistocracy and Public Reason. Social Theory and Practice, 41(3), 458–486.

Reiss, J. (2019). Expertise, Agreement, and the Nature of Social Scientific Facts or: Against Epistocracy. Social Epistemology, 33(2), 183–192.
ttps://doi.org/10.1080/02691728.2019.1577513

Vandamme, P.-E. (2020). What’s wrong with an epistocratic council? Politics, 40(1), 90–105.
ttps://doi.org/10.1177/0263395719836348

3.3 Liquid democracy

Blum, C., & Zuber, C. I. (2016). Liquid democracy: Potentials, problems, and perspectives. Journal of Political Philosophy, 24(2), 162–182.
https://doi.org/10.1111/jopp.12065

Brill, M., & Talmon, N. (2018). Pairwise Liquid Democracy. 18, 137–143.
https://doi.org/10.24963/ijcai.2018/19

Caragiannis, I., & Micha, E. (2019). A Contribution to the Critique of Liquid Democracy. 116–122.
https://doi.org/10.24963/ijcai.2019/17

Christoff, Z., & Grossi, D. (2017). Binary Voting with Delegable Proxy: An Analysis of Liquid Democracy. Electronic Proceedings in Theoretical Computer Science, 251, 134–150.
https://doi.org/10.4204/EPTCS.251.10

Gölz, P., Kahng, A., Mackenzie, S., & Procaccia, A. D. (2018). The fluid mechanics of liquid democracy. In Web and Internet Economics (pp. 188–202). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-04612-5_13

Hardt, S., & Lopes, L. C. (2015). "Google Votes: A Liquid Democracy Experiment on a Corporate Social Network (Technical Disclosure Commons).

Kahng, A., Mackenzie, S., & Procaccia, A. (2021). Liquid democracy: An algorithmic perspective. Journal of Artificial Intelligence Research, 70.
https://doi.org/10.1613/jair.1.12261

Litvinenko, A. (2012). Social media and perspectives of liquid democracy on the example of political communication of Pirate Party in Germany. 403–408.

Paulin, A. (2014). Through Liquid Democracy to Sustainable Non-Bureaucratic Government. JeDEM - eJournal of eDemocracy and Open Government, 6(2), 216–230.

Paulin, A. (2020). An Overview of Ten Years of Liquid Democracy Research. 116–121.
https://doi.org/10.1145/3396956.3396963

Ramos, J. (2015). Liquid Democracy and the Futures of Governance. In J. Winter & R. Ono (Eds.), The Future Internet (pp. 173–191). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-22994-2_11

3.4 Plural voting

Baccarini, E., & Ivanković, V. (2015). Mill’s case for plural voting and the need for balanced public decisions. Prolegomena: Časopis Za Filozofiju, 14(2), 137–156.

Bengtson, A. (2020). Differential Voting Weights and Relational Egalitarianism. Political Studies, 68(4), 1054–1070.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0032321719889870

Brilhante, Á. A., & Rocha, F. J. S. (2013). Democracy and Plural Voting in John Stuart Mill’s Political Thought. Ethic@ - Revista Internacional de Filosofia Da Moral, 12(1), 53–65.
https://doi.org/10.5007/1677-2954.2013v12n1p53

Cerovac, I. (2016). Plural Voting and JS Mill’s Account of Democratic Legitimacy. Croatian Journal of Philosophy, 16(46), 91–106.

Dimdins, G., & Montgomery, H. (2009). Negative and Positive Stakes in Plural Voting: An Experimental Study. Baltic Journal of Psychology, 10(1–2), 14–24.

Latimer, T. (2018). Plural voting and political equality: A thought experiment in democratic theory. European Journal of Political Theory, 17(1), 65–86.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1474885115591344

Mill, J. S. (1859). Considerations on representative government. Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation.

Miller, D. E. (2015). The Place of Plural Voting in Mill’s Conception of Representative Government. The Review of Politics, 77(3), 399–423.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0034670515000340

Miller, J. J. (2003). J.S. Mill on Plural Voting, Competence and Participation. History of Political Thought, 24(4), 647–667.

Mulligan, T. (2018). Plural Voting for the Twenty-First Century. The Philosophical Quarterly, 68(271), 286–306.
https://doi.org/10.1093/pq/pqx046

3.5 Recall

Alvarez, R. M., Goodrich, M., Hall, T. E., Kiewiet, D. R., & Sled, S. M. (2004). The Complexity of the California Recall Election. PS: Political Science and Politics, 37(1), 23–26.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1049096504003567

Bowler, S. (2004). Recall and representation Arnold Schwarzenegger meets Edmund Burke. Representation, 40(3), 200–212.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890408523266

Campodonico, F. (2016). Revisiting historical justifications of the recall procedures of elected representatives. Hungarian Journal of Legal Studies, 57(3), 348–372.
https://doi.org/10.1556/2052.2016.57.3.7

Cronin, T. E. (1989). Direct Democracy: The Politics of Referendum, Initiative, and Recall. Harvard University Press.

Deseriis, M. (2017). Direct Parliamentarianism: An Analysis of the Political Values Embedded in Rousseau, the" Operating System" of the Five STAR Movement. JeDEM - eJournal of eDemocracy and Open Government, 9(2), 47–67.
https://doi.org/10.29379/jedem.v9i2.471

Egger, C., & Magni-Berton, R. (2020). The Recall in France: A long standing and unresolved debate. In Y. Welp & L. Whitehead (Eds.), The Politics of Recall Elections (pp. 49–72). Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37610-9_4

Garrett, E. (2004). Democracy in the Wake of the California Recall. University of Pennsylvania Law Review, 153(1), 239.
https://doi.org/10.2307/4150625

Qvortrup, M. (2011). Hasta la vista: A comparative institutionalist analysis of the recall. Representation, 47(2), 161–170.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2011.581067

Qvortrup, M. (2020). The Political Theory of the Recall. A Study in the History of the Ideas. In Y. Welp & L. Whitehead (Eds.), The Politics of Recall Elections (pp. 29–48). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37610-9_3

Rousseau, J.-J. (2018). The Social Contract and other later political writings. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/9781316584606

Serdült, U. (2015). The history of a dormant institution: Legal norms and the practice of recall in Switzerland. Representation, 51(2), 161–172.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344893.2015.1056219

Siegel, Z. J. (2015). Recall Me Maybe: The Corrosive Effect of Recall Elections on State Legislative Politics. University of Colorado Law Review, 86, 307.

Tonge, J. (2019). Petitions, Polling Stations and Paisley: The First Outworking of the Recall of MPs Act 2015. The Political Quarterly, 90(1), 143–147.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-923X.12640

Vandamme, P.-E. (2020). Can the Recall Improve Electoral Representation? Frontiers in Political Science, 2, 6.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpos.2020.00006

Welp, Y. (2016). Recall referendums in Peruvian municipalities: A political weapon for bad losers or an instrument of accountability? Democratization, 23(7), 1162–1179.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2015.1060222

Welp, Y. (2018). Recall referendum around the world: Origins, institutional designs and current debates. In The Routledge Handbook to Referendums and Direct Democracy. Routledge.

Welp, Y., & Whitehead, L. (2020a). Recall: Democratic Advance, Safety Valve or Risky Adventure? In Y. Welp & L. Whitehead (Eds.), The Politics of Recall Elections (pp. 9–27). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37610-9_2

Welp, Y., & Whitehead, L. (Eds.). (2020b). The Politics of Recall Elections. Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37610-9

Whitehead, L. (2018). The recall of elected officeholders the growing incidence of a venerable, but overlooked, democratic institution. Democratization, 25(8), 1341–1357.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13510347.2018.1455665

Whitehead, L. (2020). On Reconciling Recall with Representation. In Y. Welp & L. Whitehead (Eds.), The Politics of Recall Elections (pp. 229–247). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-37610-9_12

3.6 Voter privacy ⏵

Aidt, T. S., & Jensen, P. S. (2016). From Open to Secret Ballot. Comparative Political Studies, 50(5), 555–53.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0010414016628268

Brennan, G., & Pettit, P. (1990). Unveiling the Vote. British Journal of Political Science, 20(3), 311–333.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712340000586X

Brettschneider, C. (2010). Democratic Rights: The Substance of Self-Government. Princeton University Press.

Bulmer, M. (Ed.). (1979). Censuses, surveys, and privacy. Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-16184-3

Engelen, B. (2013). Against the secret ballot: Toward a new proposal for open voting. Acta Politica, 48(4), 490–507.
https://doi.org/10.1057/ap.2013.10

Karpowitz, C. F., Monson, J. Q., Nielson, L., Patterson, K. D., & Snell, S. A. (2011). Political Norms and the Private Act of Voting. The Public Opinion Quarterly, 75(4), 659–685.
https://doi.org/10.1093/poq/nfr024

Kreiss, D., & Howard, P. N. (2010). New Challenges to Political Privacy: Lessons from the First U.S. Presidential Race in the Web 2.0 Era. International Journal of Communication, 4, 1032–1050.

Lane, J. I., Stodden, V., Bender, S., & Nissenbaum, H. F. (2014). Privacy, Big Data, and the Public Good: Frameworks for Engagement. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781107590205

Lever, A. (2015). Privacy and Democracy: What the Secret Ballot Reveals. Law, Culture and the Humanities, 11(2), 164–183.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1743872112458745

Manin, B. (2015). Why open voting in general elections is undesirable. In J. Elster (Ed.), Secrecy and Publicity in Votes and Debates (pp. 209–214). Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316015360.011

McGeveran, W. (2011). Mrs. McIntyre’s Persona: Brining Privacy Theory to Election Law. William & Mary Bill of Rights Journal, 19(4).

Nichter, S. (2008). Vote Buying or Turnout Buying? Machine Politics and the Secret Ballot. American Political Science Review, 102(1), 19–31.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055408080106

Pels, P., Briquet, J.-L., Bertrand, R., & Fondation nationale des sciences politiques. Centre d’études et de recherches internationales. (2007). Cultures of voting: The hidden history of the secret ballot. Hurst Publishers.

Raymond, C. D. (2014). The Effect of the Secret Ballot on Party System Fragmentation: A Test of Three Competing Arguments. Politics, 34(4), 378–390.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-9256.12055

Rubinstein, I. S. (2014). Voter Privacy in the Age of Big Data. Wisconsin Law Review, 2014(861), 76.
https://doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.2447956

Rueda, M. R. (2015). Buying votes with imperfect local knowledge and a secret ballot. Journal Of Theoretical Politics, 27(3), 428–456.
https://doi.org/10.1177/0951629814533841

Uhrenfeldt, R. (2019). Deliberative Democracy and The Secret Ballot: Can We Have Both?: Three Areas of Tension. Public Reason, 11(1), 27–44.

Vandamme, P.-E. (2018). Voting secrecy and the right to justification. Constellations, 25(3), 388.
https://doi.org/10.1111/1467-8675.12278

Witzleb, N., Paterson, M., & Richardson, J. (Eds.). (2020). Big data, political campaigning and the law: Democracy and privacy in the age of micro-targeting. Routledge.

3.6.1 Effect on participation

Elklit, J. (1983). Mobilization and partisan division: Open voting in Fredericia, Denmark. Social Science History, 7(3), 235–266.
https://doi.org/10.2307/1171187

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Biggers, D. R., & Hendry, D. J. (2014). Ballot Secrecy Concerns and Voter Mobilization: New Experimental Evidence About Message Source, Context, and the Duration of Mobilization Effects. American Politics Research, 42(5), 896–923.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X14524269

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Doherty, D., & Dowling, C. M. (2013). Is There a Secret Ballot? Ballot Secrecy Perceptions and Their Implications for Voting Behaviour. British Journal of Political Science, 43(1), 77–102.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S000712341200021X

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Doherty, D., Dowling, C. M., & Hill, S. J. (2013). Do Perceptions of Ballot Secrecy Influence Turnout? Results from a Field Experiment. American Journal of Political Science, 57(3), 537–551.
https://doi.org/10.1111/ajps.12019

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Fang, A. H., & Gooch, A. (2018). Nongovernmental Campaign Communication Providing Ballot Secrecy Assurances Increases Turnout: Results From Two Large-Scale Experiments. Political Science Research and Methods, 6(3), 613–624.
https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2017.16

Gerber, A. S., Huber, G. A., Fang, A. H., & Reardon, C. E. (2017). The effect on turnout of campaign mobilization messages addressing ballot secrecy concerns: A replication experiment. PloS One, 12(8).
https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0182199

Giné, X., & Mansuri, G. (2011). Together we will: Evidence from a field experiment on female voter turnout in Pakistan (enGender Impact : The World Bank’s Gender Impact Evaluation Database, p. 1) [Brief]. World Bank Group.

Heckelman, J. C. (1995). The effect of the secret ballot on voter turnout rates. Public Choice, 82(1–2), 107–124.
https://doi.org/10.1007/BF01047732

Heckelman, J. C. (2000). Revisiting the Relationship Between Secret Ballots and Turnout: A New Test of Two Legal-institutional Theories. American Politics Quarterly, 28(2), 194–215.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1532673X00028002003

3.6.2 History

Mares, I. (2015). From Open Secrets to Secret Voting: Democratic Electoral Reforms and Voter Autonomy. Cambridge University Press.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9781316178539

3.7 Voting age ⏵

3.7.1 Empirical

Beck, P. A., & Jennings, M. K. (1969). Lowering the voting age: The case of the reluctant electorate. Public Opinion Quarterly, 33(3), 370–379.
https://doi.org/10.1086/267720

Bergh, J. (2013). Does voting rights affect the political maturity of 16-and 17-year-olds? Findings from the 2011 Norwegian voting-age trial. Electoral Studies, 32(1), 90–100.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.11.001

Chan, T. W., & Clayton, M. (2006). Should the voting age be lowered to sixteen? Normative and empirical considerations. Political Studies, 54(3), 533–558.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9248.2006.00620.x

Eichhorn, J., & Bergh, J. (Eds.). (n.d.). Lowering the Voting Age to 16: Learning from Real Experiences Worldwide. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32541-1

Fearon-Maradey, S. (2014). Disenfranchising America’s Youth: How Current Voting Laws Are Contrary to the Intent of the Twenty-Sixth Amendment. The University of New Hampshire Law Review, 12(2), 28.

Franklin, M. N. (2020). Consequences of Lowering the Voting Age to 16: Lessons from Comparative Research. In J. Eichhorn & J. Bergh (Eds.), Lowering the Voting Age to 16 (pp. 13–41). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32541-1_2

Heineman, K., & Cultice, W. W. (1994). Youth’s Battle for the Ballot: A History of Voting Age in America. The Journal of American History, 80(4), 1535.
https://doi.org/10.2307/2080734

Larsen, E. G., Levinsen, K., & Kjaer, U. (2016). Democracy for the youth? The impact of mock elections on voting age attitudes. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 26(4), 435–451.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2016.1186031

McAllister, I. (2014). The politics of lowering the voting age in Australia: Evaluating the evidence. Australian Journal of Political Science, 49(1), 68–83.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10361146.2013.868402

Nielsen, H. J. (1970). Voting Age of 18 Years. Adopted by the Danish Folketing, Rejected by the Popular Referendum’. Scandinavian Political Studies, 5(A5), 301–305.

Rosenqvist, O. (2017). Rising to the occasion? Youth political knowledge and the voting age. British Journal of Political Science, 1–12.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0007123417000515

Stiers, D., Hooghe, M., & Dassonneville, R. (2020). Voting at 16: Does lowering the voting age lead to more political engagement? Evidence from a quasi-experiment in the city of Ghent (Belgium). Political Science Research and Methods, 9(4), 1–8.
https://doi.org/10.1017/psrm.2020.8

Stiers, D., Hooghe, M., & Goubin, S. (2020). Are 16-year-olds able to cast a congruent vote? Evidence from a “voting at 16” initiative in the city of Ghent (Belgium). Electoral Studies, 63, 102107.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2019.102107

Svensson, P. (1979). Review article The Lowering of the Voting Age in Denmark: The Referendum of September 1978. Scandinavian Political Studies, 2(1), 65–72.

Wagner, M., Johann, D., & Kritzinger, S. (2012). Voting at 16: Turnout and the quality of vote choice. Electoral Studies, 31(2), 372–383.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2012.01.007

Zeglovits, E., & Aichholzer, J. (2014). Are People More Inclined to Vote at 16 than at 18? Evidence for the First-Time Voting Boost Among 16- to 25-Year-Olds in Austria. Journal of Elections, Public Opinion and Parties, 24(3), 351–361.
https://doi.org/10.1080/17457289.2013.872652

Zeglovits, E., & Zandonella, M. (2013). Political interest of adolescents before and after lowering the voting age: The case of Austria. Journal of Youth Studies, 16(8), 1084–1104.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2013.793785

3.7.2 Normative aspects

Beckman, L. (2006). Citizenship and Voting Rights: Should Resident Aliens Vote? Citizenship Studies, 10(2), 153–165.
https://doi.org/10.1080/13621020600633093

Campos, A. S. (2019). Infant political agency: Redrawing the epistemic boundaries of democratic inclusion. European Journal of Political Theory, 21(2), 368–389.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1474885119874341

Douglas, J. A. (2016). In defense of lowering the voting age. University of Pennsylvania Law Review Onine, 165, 63.

Eichhorn, J. (2015). Should the Voting Age be Lowered to 16 for UK Elections? Political Insight, 6(2), 22–23.
https://doi.org/10.1111/2041-9066.12097

Eichhorn, J., & Bergh, J. (Eds.). (n.d.). Lowering the Voting Age to 16: Learning from Real Experiences Worldwide. Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-32541-1

Folkes, A. (2004). The case for votes at 16. Representation, 41(1), 52–56.
https://doi.org/10.1080/00344890408523288

Grover, S. C. (2010). Young People’s Human Rights and the Politics of Voting Age (Vol. 6). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-8963-2

Hamilton, V. E. (2012). Democratic Inclusion, Cognitive Development, and the Age of Electoral Majority (Faculty Publications, p. 67).

Hill, M., Lockyer, A., Head, G., & MacDonald, C. A. (2017). Voting at 16 – Lessons for the Future from the Scottish Referendum. Scottish Affairs, 26(1), 48–68.

Mráz, A. (2020). Disenfranchisement and the Capacity/Equality Puzzle: Why Disenfranchise Children but Not Adults Living with Cognitive Disabilities. Moral Philosophy and Politics, 7(2), 255–279.
https://doi.org/10.1515/mopp-2019-0054

Peto, T. (2018). Why the voting age should be lowered to 16. Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 17(3), 277–297.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1470594X17705651

Russell, A. (2014). The case for lowering the voting age is less persuasive now than at any point in the last 50 years. Democratic Audit Blog.
https://www.democraticaudit.com/2014/05/16/highlighting-the-minimal-rights-accrued-by-16-year-olds-is-a-flawed-argument-for-lowering-the-voting-age/

Silbaugh, K. (2019). Developmental Justice and the Voting Age. Fordham Urb. Law Journal, 47, 40.

Stubbs, M., & Piccolo, R. (2018). Lowering the Voting Age: A Human Rights Perspective. University of Adelaide Law Research Paper No. 2019-119. The Bulletin, 40(11).

Wattenberg, M. P. (2024). Is voting for young people? Routledge.

Wiland, E. (2018). Should Children Have the Right to Vote? In D. Boonin (Ed.), The Palgrave Handbook of Philosophy and Public Policy (pp. 215–224). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-93907-0_17

4. NORMATIVE INTERPRETATIONS OF VOTING ⏵

4.1 Aggregative conception

Christiano, T. (2004). The Authority of Democracy. Journal of Political Philosophy, 12(3), 266–290.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9760.2004.00200.x

Dahl, R. A. (1998). On Democracy. Yale University Press.
https://doi.org/10.2307/j.ctv18zhcs4

Dahl, R. A. (2008). Democracy and its Critics. Yale University Press.

Destri, C. (2020). Extrinsic Democratic Proceduralism: A Modest Defence. Res Publica.
https://doi.org/10.1007/s11158-020-09456-2

Peter, F. (2007). Democratic legitimacy and proceduralist social epistemology. Politics, Philosophy & Economics, 6(3), 329–353.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1470594X07081303

4.2 Epistemic conception

Bagg, S. (2018). The Power of the Multitude: Answering Epistemic Challenges to Democracy. American Political Science Review, 112(4), 891–904.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0003055418000527

Cohen, J. (1986). An Epistemic Conception of Democracy. In Ethics (Vol. 97, Issue 1, pp. 26–38).
https://doi.org/10.1086/292815

Coleman, J., & Ferejohn, J. (1986). Democracy and Social Choice. Ethics, 97(1), 6–25.
https://www.jstor.org/stable/2381403

Erman, E., & Möller, N. (2016). Why Democracy Cannot Be Grounded in Epistemic Principles. Social Theory and Practice, 449–473.